Volcano remote sensing with ground-based spectroscopy

The chemical compositions and emission rates of volcanic gases carry important information about underground magmatic and hydrothermal conditions, with application in eruption forecasting. Volcanic plumes are also studied because of their impacts upon the atmosphere, climate and human health. Remote sensing techniques are being increasingly used in this field because they provide real-time data and can be applied at safe distances from the target, even throughout violent eruptive episodes. However, notwithstanding the many scientific insights into volcanic behaviour already achieved with these approaches, technological limitations have placed firm restrictions upon the utility of the acquired data. For instance, volcanic SO2 emission rate measurements are typically inaccurate (errors can be greater than 100%) and have poor time resolution (ca once per week). Volcanic gas geochemistry is currently being revolutionized by the recent implementation of a new generation of remote sensing tools, which are overcoming the above limitations and are providing degassing data of unprecedented quality. In this article, I review this field at this exciting point of transition, covering the techniques used and the insights thereby obtained, and I speculate upon the breakthroughs that are now tantalizingly close

PARTICLE SEGREGATION IN TAPERED FLUIDIZED BEDS

In practical situations, a bed of particles often has a wide range of sizes or is a mixture of differently sized components, and this allows a number of different segregation structures to form depending on local flow conditions. These vary systematically in tapered beds. This paper is an experimental investigation of the interaction between size segregation and the effects on local flows in a tapered bed

Using ignimbrites to quantify structural relief growth and understand deformation processes: implications for the development of the Western Andean Slope, northernmost Chile

Large-volume ignimbrites are excellent spatial and temporal markers for local deformation and structural relief growth because they completely inundate and bury the underlying paleotopography and leave planar surfaces with relatively uniform, low-gradient slopes dipping less than 2°. Using one of these planar surfaces as a reference frame, we employed a line-balanced technique to reconstruct the original morphology of an ignimbrite that has undergone postemplacement deformation. This method allowed us to constrain both the amount of posteruptive deformation and the topography of the pre-eruptive paleolandscape. Our test case was the unwelded surface of the 21.9 Ma Cardones ignimbrite, located on the western slope of the Central Andes in northernmost Chile (18°20′S). By reconstructing the original surface slope of this ignimbrite, we demonstrate that the pre–21.9 Ma topography of the Western Andean Slope was characterized by structural relief growth and erosion in the east, and the creation of accommodation space and sedimentation in the west. The paleoslope at that time was dissected by river valleys of up to 450 ± 150 m deep that accumulated great thicknesses (>1000 m) of the Cardones ignimbrite, and likely controlled the location of the present-day Lluta Quebrada as a result of differential welding compaction of the ignimbrite. Our reconstruction suggests that growth of the Western Andean Slope had already started by ca. 23 Ma, consistent with slow and steady models for uplift of the Central Andes. Subsequent deformation in the Miocene generated up to 1725 ± 165 m of structural relief, of which more than 90% can be attributed to fault-related folding of the ∼40-km-wide Huaylillas anticline. Uplift related to regional forearc tilting is less than 10% and could have been zero. The main phase of folding likely occurred in the mid- to late Miocene and had ceased by ca. 6 Ma

New insights into landslide processes around volcanic islands from Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) observations offshore Montserrat

Submarine landslide deposits have been mapped around many volcanic islands, but interpretations of their structure, composition, and emplacement are hindered by the challenges of investigating deposits directly. Here we report on detailed observations of four landslide deposits around Montserrat collected by Remotely Operated Vehicles, integrating direct imagery and sampling with sediment core and geophysical data. These complementary approaches enable a more comprehensive view of large-scale mass-wasting processes around island-arc volcanoes than has been achievable previously. The most recent landslide occurred at 11.5–14 ka (Deposit 1; 1.7 km3) and formed a radially spreading hummocky deposit that is morphologically similar to many subaerial debris-avalanche deposits. Hummocks comprise angular lava and hydrothermally altered fragments, implying a deep-seated, central subaerial collapse, inferred to have removed a major proportion of lavas from an eruptive period that now has little representation in the subaerial volcanic record. A larger landslide (Deposit 2; 10 km3) occurred at ∼130 ka and transported intact fragments of the volcanic edifice, up to 900 m across and over 100 m high. These fragments were rafted within the landslide, and are best exposed near the margins of the deposit. The largest block preserves a primary stratigraphy of subaerial volcanic breccias, of which the lower parts are encased in hemipelagic mud eroded from the seafloor. Landslide deposits south of Montserrat (Deposits 3 and 5) indicate the wide variety of debris-avalanche source lithologies around volcanic islands. Deposit 5 originated on the shallow submerged shelf, rather than the terrestrial volcanic edifice, and is dominated by carbonate debris

Ethiopian volcanic hazards: a changing research landscape

Collaborative research projects have a significant role in filling the knowledge gaps that are obstacles to the rigorous assessment of volcanic hazards in some locations. Research is essential to generate the evidence on which raising awareness of volcanic hazards, monitoring and early warning systems, risk reduction activities and efforts to increase resilience can be built. We report the current state of volcanic hazards research and practice in Ethiopia and on the collaborative process used in the Afar Rift Consortium project to promote awareness of volcanic hazards. Effective dissemination of findings to stakeholders and the integration of results into existing practice need leadership by in-country researchers, effective long-term collaboration with other researchers (e.g. international groups) and operational scientists, in addition to integration with existing programmes related to disaster risk reduction initiatives

Similarities and differences in the historical records of lava dome-building volcanoes: implications for understanding magmatic processes and eruption forecasting

A key question for volcanic hazard assessment is the extent to which information can be exchanged between volcanoes. This question is particularly pertinent to hazard forecasting for dome-building volcanoes, where effusive activity may persist for years to decades, and may be punctuated by periods of repose, and sudden explosive activity. Here we review historical eruptive activity of fifteen lava dome-building volcanoes over the past two centuries, with the goal of creating a hierarchy of exchangeable (i.e., similar) behaviours. Eruptive behaviour is classified using empirical observations that include patterns of SO2 flux, eruption style, and magma composition. We identify two eruptive regimes: (i) an episodic regime where eruptions are much shorter than intervening periods of repose, and degassing is temporally correlated with lava effusion; and (ii) a persistent regime where eruptions are comparable in length to periods of repose and gas emissions do not correlate with eruption rates. A corollary to these two eruptive regimes is that there are also two different types of repose: (i) inter-eruptive repose separates episodic eruptions, and is characterised by negligible gas emissions and (ii) intra-eruptive repose is observed in persistently active volcanoes, and is characterised by continuous gas emissions. We suggest that these different patterns of can be used to infer vertical connectivity within mush-dominated magmatic systems. We also note that our recognition of two different types of repose raises questions about traditional definitions of historical volcanism as a point process. This is important, because the ontology of eruptive activity (that is, the definition of volcanic activity in time) influences both analysis of volcanic data and, by extension, interpretations of magmatic processes. Our analysis suggests that one identifying exchangeable traits or behaviours provides a starting point for developing robust ontologies of volcanic activity. Moreover, by linking eruptive regimes to conceptual models of magmatic processes, we illustrate a path towards developing a conceptual framework not only for comparing data between different volcanoes but also for improving forecasts of eruptive activity

Thermal constraints on the emplacement rate of e large intrusive complex : the Manaslu Leucogranite, Nepal Himalaya.

International audienceThe emplacement of the Manaslu leucogranite body (Nepal, Himalaya) has been modelled as the accretion of successive sills. The leucogranite is characterized by isotopic heterogeneities suggesting limited magma convection, and by a thin (<100 m) upper thermal aureole. These characteristics were used to constrain the maximum magma emplacement rate. Models were tested with sills injected regularly over the whole duration of emplacement and with two emplacement sequences separated by a repose period. Additionally, the hypothesis of a tectonic top contact, with unroofing limiting heat transfer during magma emplacement, was evaluated. In this latter case, the upper limit for the emplacement rate was estimated at 3·4 mm/year (or 1·5 Myr for 5 km of granite). Geological and thermobarometric data, however, argue against a major role of fault activity in magma cooling during the leucogranite emplacement. The best model in agreement with available geochronological data suggests an emplacement rate of 1 mm/year for a relatively shallow level of emplacement (granite top at 10 km), uninterrupted by a long repose period. The thermal aureole temperature and thickness, and the isotopic heterogeneities within the leucogranite, can be explained by the accretion of 20–60 m thick sills intruded every 20 000–60 000 years over a period of 5 Myr. Under such conditions, the thermal effects of granite intrusion on the underlying rocks appear limited and cannot be invoked as a cause for the formation of migmatites

Duration of large-magnitude explosive eruptions deduced from graded bedding in deep-sea ash layers

Thick silicic volcanic ash layers commonly observed hundreds of kilometres from potential source areas have resulted from large-magnitude explosive eruptions that have no historical equivalents. We have developed a model that predicts the duration of these eruptions from the vertical size grading of feldspar phenocrysts near the base of deep-sea tephra layers. The size grading is a function of the release time of the particles, their settling velocity, the water depth at the site of the ash layer, and the duration of the eruption. The model has been tested on two layers of the Worzel D ash in the eastern equatorial Pacific. This ash layer is the distal counterpart of the rhyolitic Los Chocoyos ash-flow tuff and H-tephra layer associated with the formation of the Lake Atitlán caldera in Guatemala. The estimated duration of the eruption is 20 to 27 d. Calculations using published estimates of the volume of erupted material yield an average magma-discharge rate of about 240,000 m3/s. This rate is approximately equivalent to that recorded in the 1956 eruption of Bezymianny and the 1912 eruption of Katmai

Degassing at the Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, recorded in matrix glass compositions

Compositions of matrix glasses from the current eruption of Soufriere Hills Volcano indicate that decompression-driven crystallization results in 20-70 wt % groundmass crystallization during eruption and variable degassing. Variations in crystallinity and volatile contents (water and chlorine) of matrix glasses are attributed to variations in extrusion rates and residence times in the lava dome. Residual water contents in pumice clasts (0.2-0.6 wt %) indicate minimum pressures of 1.1-3.7 MPa in 1997 Vulcanian explosions. Residual water contents of 1.6 wt % in a ballistic block ejected in sub- Plinian explosive activity on 17 September 1996 imply larger pressure drops (similar to20 MPa). Variable residual water contents in dome samples are consistent with pressure variations of up to 9 MPa in the lava dome interior. Large variation in chlorine contents between lava blocks compared with explosion pumice clasts indicates that shallow-level processes dominate degassing. Low melt chlorine contents of dome samples cannot be explained by open- or closed-system degassing, especially when crystallization is taken into account. Instead, heterogeneous chlorine leaching by circulation of groundwater vapour in the dome is proposed. Variable and elevated matrix glass deltaD values can also be attributed to interaction with isotopically heavy surface waters. HCl emission during the current eruption can be accounted for by Cl loss from the melt, consistent with the melt being undersaturated in chlorine