Characterising dark net marketplace purchasers in a sample of regular psychostimulant users

Background: The past five years has seen a proliferation in marketplaces operating on the 'dark net' selling licit and illicit substances. While monitoring systems have investigated the specific substances for sale on these marketplaces, less is known about consumer motivations for accessing these marketplaces and factors associated with their use. Methods: An Australian national sample (n = 800) recruited on the basis of regular psychostimulant use was recruited and asked about purchasing substances from dark net marketplaces and the reasons for doing so. Respondents who had purchased any drug from a dark net marketplace in the preceding year were compared to those who had not in terms of demographic information and factors including drug use, criminal activity, and sexual and mental health. Results: Nine percent (n = 68) of the sample had purchased from dark net markets in the past year. MDMA, LSD and cannabis were the three most commonly purchased substances, and the main benefits cited for purchasing online were the better quality and lower cost of drugs available. Controlling for other factors, participants who purchased from dark net marketplaces in the past year tended to be younger, more likely to be involved in recent property crime and to have used more classes of drugs in the preceding six months, specifically psychedelics and 'new psychoactive drugs'. Conclusions: Though a small minority of participants reported having purchased drugs online in the preceding six months, these appeared to be a more

Using quantitative wastewater analysis to measure daily usage of conventional and emerging illicit drugs at an annual music festival

Introduction and Aims: Wastewater analysis provides a non-intrusive way of measuring drug use within a population. We used this approach to determine daily use of conventional illicit drugs [cannabis, cocaine, methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)] and emerging illicit psychostimulants (benzylpiperazine, mephedrone and methylone) in two consecutive years (2010 and 2011) at an annual music festival. Design and Methods: Daily composite wastewater samples, representative of the festival, were collected from the on-site wastewater treatment plant and analysed for drug metabolites. Data over 2 years were compared using Wilcoxon matched-pair test. Data from 2010 festival were compared with data collected at the same time from a nearby urban community using equivalent methods. Results: Conventional illicit drugs were detected in all samples whereas emerging illicit psychostimulants were found only on specific days. The estimated per capita consumption of MDMA, cocaine and cannabis was similar between the two festival years. Statistically significant (

Motivations, substance use and other correlates amongst property and violent offenders who regularly inject drugs

Objective: To examine the prevalence, correlates and motivations for the commission of property and violent crime amongst a sample of people who inject drugs (PWID)

Alcohol policy impact on young risky drinkers and their support for proposed measures

Objective: To explore the impacts of existing policies on young Australian risky drinkers' access to alcohol and to gauge their support for proposed alcohol measures. Methods: The 16–19 year old participants were recruited from three Australian states using non-random convenience sampling, for either a face-to-face or online quantitative survey (N=958). The sample was deliberately selected to represent drinkers whose consumption placed them in the riskiest drinking 20–25% of their age bracket. Results: Half (49%) the sample who were younger than the Australian legal purchase age reported it was ‘easy’ to buy alcohol from bottle stores, and 75% of those who had tried to purchase alcohol, said it was ‘easy’ the last time they tried. Half of those under 18, who had attempted to enter a licensed venue, reported they did not have their identification checked last time they gained access. Ninety per cent of all respondents drank within a private location at their last risky drinking session. Sixty-five per cent supported ‘increasing the price of [alcohol by 20¢] a standard drink if the extra 20¢ was used to support prevention and treatment of alcohol problems'. Conclusions: Age- or intoxication-based restrictions to alcohol were commonly bypassed. Implications: Point-of-sale alcohol controls require improvement to prevent under age access. Given that a significant proportion of drinking occasions for those under 18 were in private premises, prevention strategies need to target these locations. There were diverse levels of support for strategies to reduce harm, including potential community backing for an evidence-based proposed price policy

Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB), gamma butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4 butanediol (1,4-BD; BDO) : a literature review with a focus on UK fatalities related to non-medical use

Misuse of gamma hydroxybutrate (GHB) and gamma butyrolactone (GBL) has increased greatly since the early 1990s, being implicated in a rising number of deaths. This paper reviews knowledge on GHB and derivatives, and explores the largest series of deaths associated with their non-medical use. Descriptive analyses of cases associated with GHB/GBL and 1,4 butanediol (1,4-BD) use extracted from the UK’s National Programme on Substance Abuse Deaths database. From 1995 to September 2013, 159 GHB/GBL-associated fatalities were reported. Typical victims: White (92%), young (mean age 32 years); male (82%); with a drug misuse history (70%). Most deaths (79%) were accidental or related to drug use, the remainder (potential) suicides. GHB/GBL alone was implicated in 37%; alcohol 14%; other drugs 28%; other drugs and alcohol 15%. Its endogenous nature and rapid elimination limit toxicological detection. Post-mortem blood levels: mean 482 (range 0 - 6500; S.D. 758) mg/L. Results suggest significant caution is needed when ingesting GHB/GBL, particularly with alcohol, benzodiazepines, opiates, stimulants, and ketamine. More awareness is needed about risks associated with consumption.Peer reviewe

Drug detection dogs in Australia: more bark than bite?

Introduction and Aims. Canines are often used by police for drug detection and deterrence. However, their effectiveness has been questioned. This paper aims to describe the experience of regular illicit drug users when in contact with drug detection dogs. Design and Methods. Regular ecstasy users (n = 2127) were interviewed across Australia between 2008 and 2010 as part of the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System. Results. Over the 3 year period, there was increased visibility of drug detection dogs by regular ecstasy users. New South Wales was the jurisdiction with the most reported sightings, mainly occurring at festivals or live music events. Despite this police presence, however, detection and deterrence rates remained low. Approximately two-thirds of participants who had seen the drug detection dogs had drugs in their possession at the most recent sighting, yet less than 7% were positively identified by dogs. Further, the majority of participants in possession of drugs took no actions after sighting the dogs, whereas a small group hastily consumed the drugs. Discussion and Conclusions. The low proportion of reported positive notifications from the dogs by the participants who had drugs on them at the time of sighting questions the accuracy and effectiveness of this procedure. Despite the increased visibility of police drug detection dogs, regular ecstasy users continue to use and be in possession of illicit drugs in public, suggesting a limited deterrence effect. The hasty consumption of drugs upon sighting the dogs also raises health concerns.[Hickey S, McIlwraith F, Bruno R, Matthews A, Alati R. Drug detection dogs in Australia: More bark than bite? Drug Alcohol Rev 2012;31:778783

Illicit drug use and the burden of disease

There are two major challenges in estimating the burden of disease (BOD) attributable to illicit drug use. These are (1) the poor quality of data on the prevalence of the major types of illicit drug use, namely, cannabis, amfetamine-type stimulants (ATS), opioid, and cocaine use; and (2) the limited epidemiological database from cohort studies of the mortality and morbidity that can be attributed to the use of these drugs. The best available epidemiologically based data on disease burden is that attributable to the use of illicit opioids, which have been shown to increase overall morbidity and mortality from AIDS, overdose, suicide, and trauma. There are strong indications that the stimulants cocaine and ATS contribute to the same causes of death but there are limited longitudinal studies to quantify their contribution. In 2000, illicit opioid use was estimated to contribute to about 200 000 deaths globally. This accounted for 0.8% of the global BOD. Similar estimates have recently been derived using similar methods in Australia. To improve on future estimates of illicit drug-related BOD, better estimates are needed of the prevalence of use of all illicit drugs and better epidemiological data are required on the morbidity and mortality attributable to cannabis, cocaine, and ATS drugs

'Trafficking' or 'personal use': Do people who regularly inject drugs understand Australian drug trafficking laws?

Introduction and Aims: Legal thresholds for drug trafficking, over which possession of an illicit drug is deemed 'trafficking' as opposed to 'personal use', are employed in all Australian states and territories excepting Queensland. In this paper, we explore the extent to which people who regularly inject drugs understand such laws. Design and Methods: Participants from the seven affected states/territories in the 2012 Illicit Drug Reporting System (n=823) were asked about their legal knowledge of trafficking thresholds: whether, if arrested, quantity possessed would affect legal action taken; and the quantities of heroin, methamphetamine, cocaine and cannabis that would constitute an offence of supply. Data were compared against the actual laws to identify the accuracy of knowledge by drug type and state, and sociodemographics, use and purchasing patterns related to knowledge. Results: Most Illicit Drug Reporting System participants (77%) correctly said that quantity possessed would affect charge received. However, only 55.8% nominated any specific quantity that would constitute an offence of supply, and of those 22.6% nominated a wrong quantity, namely a quantity that was larger than the actual quantity for supply (this varied by state and drug). Discussion and Conclusions: People who regularly inject drugs have significant gaps in knowledge about Australian legal thresholds for drug trafficking, particularly regarding the actual threshold quantities. This suggests that there may be a need to improve education for this population. Necessity for accurate knowledge would also be lessened by better design of Australian drug trafficking laws. [Hughes CE, Ritter A, Cowdery N, Sindicich N. 'Trafficking' or 'personal use': Do people who regularly inject drugs understand Australian drug trafficking laws

Rates of injection in prison in a sample of Australian injecting drug users

Aims: Determine the prevalence and frequency at which injecting drug users (IDU) continue to inject whilst incarcerated and to identify factors associated with in-prison injecting. Design: A nationally coordinated cross-sectional convenience sample. Participants: A total of 355 regular IDUs who had been imprisoned within the past 10 years. Measurements: Data concerning demographics, drug use history and injection whilst imprisoned were collected by participant self-report. Findings: Almost half, 46% (n = 162), of the participants reported that they had ever injected whilst imprisoned. Most of these (n = 150; 42% of all participants) reported injecting during their last imprisonment. Factors identified as significantly associated with prison injecting were being male, receiving income from criminal activity in the month prior to interview and length of last sentence. Frequency of injection varied from isolated instances to multiple times daily. Half (n = 75) of those who injected during their most recent imprisonment reported injecting at a lower frequency while incarcerated than they did in the month prior to survey. Two individuals reported initiation to injection during their most recent period of imprisonment. Conclusions: Most IDUs who experience imprisonment either suspend injecting whilst incarcerated or reduce the frequency at which they inject. However, injection is still common in Australian prisons, highlighting the need for continued harm-minimisation efforts with this population