A Gendered Analysis of Perceived Risks of Commercial Oriented Smallholder Vegetable Farmers in Kilifi County, Kenya

This paper examines the relationship between gender and perceived risks of commercial oriented smallholder farmers in Kilifi County. A sample of 332 smallholder vegetable farmers was selected from the study area. A 5-point Likert scale and factor analysis approaches were used to rank and analyze risks encountered by farmers. Thereafter, a chi-square test was used to evaluate the mean scores of risks across gender. Gender was categorized – based on who manages the vegetable farms – into male managed (37%), female managed (24%) and joint-management (39%). Results from the study show that marketing risks are more frequent for male farmers while the joint-management group mostly experience financial risks. Additionally, severity of financial risks is greater for male farmers as compared to female farmers. The study concludes that female farmers were not prone to financial and marketing risks which implied that financial availability and marketing opportunities are still scarce to empower women in the vegetable sector. The study recommends implementation of policies that will help in minimizing the gravity of financial risks that affect both male and female farmers. Policies that are tailor-made to address gender specific financial constraints, more so in the informal sector, should be implemented in order to promote access to affordable financial support. Additionally, female empowerment programs should be implemented in order to increase their participation in domestic and high value markets. Keywords: Risk, vegetables, gender, smallholder, factor analysis, Kenya DOI: 10.7176/JESD/10-14-16 Publication date:July 31st 201

Factors Influencing the Extent of Push-Pull Technology Expansion Among Smallholder Maize Farmers in Homa Bay, Kenya

The research is financed by African Economic Research Consortium (AERC)and Egerton University Abstract Dissemination, continued uptake and expansion of the area covered by push-pull technology (PPT), remain critical requirements in addressing the major constraints facing maize production such as infestation by striga weed and stem borers, and declining soil fertility for improved livelihoods. Despite increasing investment and literature on PPT in Homa Bay County, there are still smallholder farmers who for unknown reasons have chosen only to expand a smaller portion of their potential land for PPT or those who have chosen to reduce the area covered by PPT since adoption. This study econometrically addresses this information gap by looking at the rate and factors influencing extent of PPT expansion. A multi-stage sampling procedure was applied to select a sample of 240 smallholder farmers in Homa Bay County. Data were obtained through a face-to-face interviews using a pretested semi-structured questionnaire, and analyzed using censored tobit model. The results revealed relatively low PPT expansion rate of about 48.59%. Tobit results revealed that gender, marital status, access to extension services, dissemination pathways, perception on the stem borer severity, napier seed availability, longevity of PPT use, total size of cultivable land, and distance to the nearest market significantly influenced the extent of PPT expansion. Interestingly, farmer-to-farmer, field days and farmer teachers were found to be the most important and effective dissemination pathways enhancing the extent of PPT expansion. Therefore, the paper recommends policies that seek to ensure equitable access to output and input markets, efficient and effective extension system, as well as those that ensure strengthening of social institutions for extensive use of PPT. Again, such policies should ensure establishment of an integrated input development system which involves all stakeholders in the development and dissemination of PPT inputs such as desmodium seeds. Keywords: Dissemination, Continued Adoption, Extent of PPT Expansion, Censored Tobit Model DOI: 10.7176/JESD/10-7-08 Publication date: April 30th 201

An Analysis of Economic Efficiency in Bean Production: Evidence from Eastern Uganda

Bean has emerged to be an important cash crop as well as a staple food in Uganda; however, the country’s bean productivity per unit area cultivated has been on the decline for the past ten years. This study estimated the economic efficiency levels and assessed the factors influencing economic efficiency among bean farmers in Eastern Uganda, by applying a stochastic frontier cost function and a two-limit Tobit regression model, based on a random sample of 580 households. Findings revealed that the mean economic efficiency level was 59.94% and it was positively influenced by value of assets, off-farm income, credit and farmers’ primary occupation. Based on the findings from this study, there is need for government and stakeholders to train farmers on entrepreneurial skills so that they can divest their farm profits into more income generating activities which would harness more farming capital. Finally, there is a need for initiatives geared towards enhancing farmers’ access to adequate credit for farming at affordable interest rates and using groups as collateral, so that they could invest more in farming to increase their economic efficiency and farm productivity. Key words: stochastic frontier approach, smallholder farmers, Tobit regression mode

Factors Influencing Profitability of Diversified Cash Crop Farming among Smallholder Tea Farmers in Gatanga District, Kenya

Small-scale farming account for about 75% and 55% of total agricultural production and marketed output respectively in Kenya. Cash crop farming is the main occupation of a majority of the farmers in central Kenya. However, with continued decline in the prices of traditional cash crops, horticultural crops have become an integral part of smallholder farms as a strategy to enhance farm incomes. It’s, however, not well documented as to whether this cash crop multiplicity has helped improve the economic welfare of these peasant farmers. The study aimed at determining whether diversified cash crop farming is more profitable than specialization in tea farming and also identify the factors influencing this profitability. The study revealed that diversified cash crop farming is at least 63% more profitable than specialization in tea farming.  Gender, farming experience, farm tools, farm size, credit, hired labour and the fertilizer and manure applied are the significant determinants. Keywords: profitability, smallholder, tea, horticulture, diversification, cash crop

The status of knowledge, attitudes, and practice in the cultivation and usage of improved forages in Kenya and Uganda

There is a scarcity of published literature about farmers’ level of knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding improved forage varieties in East Africa, particularly among the populations where development projects have been and continue to be implemented. This study was carried out to address this knowledge gap and strengthen future scaling activities. We rely on cross-sectional data with a sample of 353 respondents equally drawn from treatment and control areas across 3 districts in Kenya and Uganda respectively. Pairwise correlations, t-tests, and left-censored Tobit regression were utilized for the analysis. Results indicate that treatment areas have significantly higher levels of knowledge and have more positive attitudes toward improved forage cultivation and use compared to the control areas. However, Kenyan farmers seemed generally more knowledgeable (at 3.16 on a scale of 1-5) and portrayed positive attitudes than their Ugandan counterparts (2.18) within the intervention areas. Regarding the actual forage adoption, it is observed that the majority (91%) of the respondents in Kenya cultivated at least one forage crop on their farms, which was more than double the percentage (38%) who cultivated forages in Uganda. The most important factors influencing the area planted with forages were participation in forage training events, the size of land and number of cattle owned, as well as the education and experience levels of farmers. In Kenya, we also observed a significant positive correlation between different extension approaches (radio programs, attending field days, TV programs, farmer field schools, farmer-to-farmer exchange, formal workshops) and the respondents’ knowledge levels. The findings show that a great milestone has been achieved in creating awareness among Kenyan farmers. Similar intensified campaigns will be required in Uganda and other East African countries to scale out the adoption of high-quality forages in these countries

The use of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris ) traditional varieties and their mixtures with commercial varieties to manage bean fly (Ophiomyia spp .) infestations in Uganda

The bean fly (Ophiomyia spp.) is considered the most economically damaging field insect pest of common beans in Uganda. Despite the use of existing pest management approaches, reported damage has remained high. Forty-eight traditional and improved common bean varieties currently grown in farmers’ fields were evaluated for resistance against bean fly. Data on bean fly incidence, severity and root damage from bean stem maggot were collected. Generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) revealed significant resistance to bean fly in the Ugandan traditional varieties. A popular resistant traditional variety and a popular susceptible commercial variety were selected from the 48 varieties and evaluated in pure and mixed stands. The incidence of bean fly infestation on both varieties in mixtures with different arrangements (systematic random versus rows), and different proportions within each of the two arrangements, was measured and analysed using GLMMs. The proportion of resistant varieties in a mixture and the arrangement type significantly decreased bean fly damage compared to pure stands, with the highest decrease in damage registered in the systematic random mixture with at least 50 % of resistant variety. The highest reduction in root damage, obvious 21 days after planting, was found in systematic random mixtures with at least 50 % of the resistant variety. Small holder farmers in East Africa and elsewhere in the world have local preferences for growing bean varieties in genetic mixtures. These mixtures can be enhanced by the use of resistant varieties in the mixtures to reduce bean fly damage on susceptible popular varieties

Climate risk management and rural poverty reduction

Climate variability is a major source of risk to smallholder farmers and pastoralists, particularly in dryland regions. A growing body of evidence links climate-related risk to the extent and the persistence of rural poverty in these environments. Stochastic shocks erode smallholder farmers’ long-term livelihood potential through loss of productive assets. The resulting uncertainty impedes progress out of poverty by acting as a disincentive to investment in agriculture – by farmers, rural financial services, value chain institutions and governments. We assess evidence published in the last ten years that a set of production technologies and institutional options for managing risk can stabilize production and incomes, protect assets in the face of shocks, enhance uptake of improved technologies and practices, improve farmer welfare, and contribute to poverty reduction in risk-prone smallholder agricultural systems. Production technologies and practices such as stress-adapted crop germplasm, conservation agriculture, and diversified production systems stabilize agricultural production and incomes and, hence, reduce the adverse impacts of climate-related risk under some circumstances. Institutional interventions such as index-based insurance, adaptive safety nets and climate services play a complementary role in enabling farmers to manage risk, overcome risk-related barriers to adoption of improved technologies and practices, and protect their assets against the impacts of extreme climatic events. While some research documents improvements in household welfare indicators, there is limited evidence that the risk-reduction benefits of the interventions reviewed have benefited significant numbers of chronically poor farmers. We discuss the roles that climate-risk management interventions can play in efforts to reduce rural poverty, and the need for further research on identifying and targeting environments and farming populations where improved climate risk management could accelerate efforts to reduce rural poverty

Determinants of Common Bean Productivity and Efficiency: A Case of Smallholder Farmers in Eastern Uganda

Agriculture sustains the livelihoods of about 70.8% of Ugandans, while common bean has emerged to be an important cash crop as well as a staple food for the majority of farmers and consumers. Although Uganda’s bean output has more than doubled, average bean yields in the country have been between 0.6 and 0.8 Mt Ha-1, even though yields higher than 1.5 Mt Ha-1 can be realized with improved varieties. Thusthe objective of this study was to determine the factors influencing common beanproductivityand efficiency among smallholder farmers in Eastern Uganda.The study was conducted in Busia, Mbale, Budaka and Tororo districts in Eastern Uganda based on a sample of 280 householdsselected using a multi-stage sampling technique. For the data collection, a personally administered structured questionnaire was used to conduct interviews, with a focus on household heads. In the analyses, descriptive statistics, a stochastic frontier modeland a two-limit Tobit regression model were employed. It was established that bean productivity was positively influenced by plot size, ordinary seeds, certified seeds and planting fertilizers. The mean technical efficiency among bean farms was 48.2%, mean economic efficiency was 59.94% and mean allocative efficiency was 29.37%. Finally, Tobit model estimation revealed that technical efficiency was positively influenced by value of assets at 1% level and extension service and group membership at 5% level; while age and distance to the factor market negatively influenced technical efficiency at 10% and 5% levels respectively. Economic efficiency was positively influenced by value of assets at 1% level and off-farm income and credit at 5% level. However, farmers’ primary occupation negativelyinfluenced economic efficiency at 5% level. Allocative efficiency was positively influenced by value of assets at 1% level and farm size and off-farm income at 10% level; while distance to the factor market negatively influenced allocative efficiency at 5% level.Hence the study recommended on the need for increased provision of extension service and training on correct input application and improved farming technologies to increase bean productivity. It also suggested on the need for policy to discourage land fragmentation, develop road and market infrastructure in rural areas and provide affordable and easily available credit facilities to improve production efficiency of bean farms