Nitrate assimilation phenotype variability and heterogeneity in Brettanomyces bruxellensis

Brettanomyces bruxellensis is a yeast species associated with industrial fermentation ecosystems. The ability to use alternative nutrient sources, such as nitrate, may be advantageous and allow it to outcompete other microbial species. The assimilation of nitrate is conferred by the expression of structural proteins that facilitate nitrate uptake and reduction. The genes (YNR1, YNI1 and YNT1) encoding these structural proteins form the structural nitrate assimilation gene cluster. Expression of these genes is putatively controlled by nitrogen catabolite repression and two Zn(II)2Cys6 transcription factors, which are encoded by YNA1 and YNA2. These two genes are not collocated with the structural nitrate assimilation gene cluster and form the regulatory nitrate assimilation gene cluster. This study explores sequence and ploidy variation at these two nitrate assimilation gene clusters in B. bruxellensis and relates this to variable nitrate assimilation potential across a cohort of forty-one B. bruxellensis strains isolated from a range of industrial fermentative sources. It was found that in some apparent nitrate-negative isolates a subset of the population can switch to a nitrate-positive phenotype, which could be an example of microbial bet-hedging. These strains shared a common haplotype of the structural nitrate assimilation gene cluster. A representative of this cohort of isolates, AWRI1608, was found to switch from nitrate-negative to nitrate-positive at a rate of approximately 1 in 105 cells during incubation on solid media with nitrate as the sole nitrogen source for 7 days. Nitrate-positive colonies were isolated from these plates and were shown to retain their nitrate-positive phenotype over 100 generations in non-selective media, but were near-isogenic with the original isolate and showed no mutations in or near nitrate assimilation genes. AWRI1608 and its nitrate-positive variants were used to develop a method for assessing competitive fitness between isolates using a newly-developed transformation protocol to mark strains with antibiotic-resistance. This study is the first to show nitrate assimilation phenotype heterogeneity in B. bruxellensis.Thesis (MPhil) -- University of Adelaide, School of Biological Sciences, 201

Segmentation by Motivation in Ecotourism: Application to Protected Areas in Guayas, Ecuador

[EN] Among tourists, there is recently a growing interest in the environment and enjoying the natural world. This study analyzed the motivations and segmentation of the demand for ecotourism, using functional theory as a reference point. Empirical analysis was carried out in Santay National Recreation Area, Morro Mangrove Wildlife Refuge, and Samanes National Recreation Area. The sample included 382 surveys, obtained in situ using the simple random sampling method. Factorial analysis and non-hierarchical segmentation were performed to analyze the data. The results indicate that there are several motivational dimensions in ecotourism, including self-development, interpersonal relationships and ego-defensive function, building personal relationships, escape reward, and nature appreciation. We also identified three different segments of ecotourists based on their motivations¿nature, multiple motives, and reward and escape¿as well as the characteristics of the different segments. The present investigation will help public institutions and private companies improve their tourism offerings and develop more efficient marketing plans.Carvache-Franco, SM.; Segarra-Oña, M.; Carrascosa López, C. (2019). Segmentation by Motivation in Ecotourism: Application to Protected Areas in Guayas, Ecuador. Sustainability. 11(1):1-19. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010240S119111Das, M., & Chatterjee, B. (2015). Ecotourism: A panacea or a predicament? Tourism Management Perspectives, 14, 3-16. doi:10.1016/j.tmp.2015.01.002Hultman, M., Kazeminia, A., & Ghasemi, V. (2015). Intention to visit and willingness to pay premium for ecotourism: The impact of attitude, materialism, and motivation. Journal of Business Research, 68(9), 1854-1861. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.01.013Balmford, A., Beresford, J., Green, J., Naidoo, R., Walpole, M., & Manica, A. (2009). A Global Perspective on Trends in Nature-Based Tourism. PLoS Biology, 7(6), e1000144. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000144Tao, T. C. H., & Wall, G. (2009). Tourism as a sustainable livelihood strategy. Tourism Management, 30(1), 90-98. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2008.03.009Park, D.-B., & Yoon, Y.-S. (2009). Segmentation by motivation in rural tourism: A Korean case study. Tourism Management, 30(1), 99-108. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2008.03.011Kim, S. S., Kim, J. H., & Ritchie, B. W. (2008). Segmenting Overseas Golf Tourists by the Concept of Specialization. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 25(2), 199-217. doi:10.1080/10548400802402958Plog, S. C. (1974). Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in Popularity. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 14(4), 55-58. doi:10.1177/001088047401400409Darden, W. R., & Perreault, Jr., W. D. (1975). A Multivariate Analysis of Media Exposure and Vacation Behavior with Life Style Covariates. Journal of Consumer Research, 2(2), 93. doi:10.1086/208620Dalen, E. (1989). Research into values and consumer trends in Norway. Tourism Management, 10(3), 183-186. doi:10.1016/0261-5177(89)90067-8Gitelson, R. J., & Kerstetter, D. L. (1990). The Relationship Between Sociodemographic Variables, Benefits Sought and Subsequent Vacation Behavior: A Case Study. Journal of Travel Research, 28(3), 24-29. doi:10.1177/004728759002800304Kozak, M. (2002). Comparative analysis of tourist motivations by nationality and destinations. Tourism Management, 23(3), 221-232. doi:10.1016/s0261-5177(01)00090-5Jang, S. C., Morrison, A. M., & O’Leary, J. T. (2002). Benefit segmentation of Japanese pleasure travelers to the USA and Canada: selecting target markets based on the profitability and risk of individual market segments. Tourism Management, 23(4), 367-378. doi:10.1016/s0261-5177(01)00096-6Kau, A. K., & Lim, P. S. (2005). Clustering of Chinese tourists to Singapore: an analysis of their motivations, values and satisfaction. International Journal of Tourism Research, 7(4-5), 231-248. doi:10.1002/jtr.537Frochot, I. (2005). A benefit segmentation of tourists in rural areas: a Scottish perspective. Tourism Management, 26(3), 335-346. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.016Correia, A., Oom do Valle, P., & Moço, C. (2007). Modeling motivations and perceptions of Portuguese tourists. Journal of Business Research, 60(1), 76-80. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2005.10.013Bansal, H., & Eiselt, H. A. (2004). Exploratory research of tourist motivations and planning. Tourism Management, 25(3), 387-396. doi:10.1016/s0261-5177(03)00135-3Poria, Y., Butler, R., & Airey, D. (2004). Links between Tourists, Heritage, and Reasons for Visiting Heritage Sites. Journal of Travel Research, 43(1), 19-28. doi:10.1177/0047287504265508Weaver, D. B., & Lawton, L. J. (2002). Overnight Ecotourist Market Segmentation in the Gold Coast Hinterland of Australia. Journal of Travel Research, 40(3), 270-280. doi:10.1177/004728750204000305Marques, C., Reis, E., & Menezes, J. (2010). Profiling the segments of visitors to Portuguese protected areas. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(8), 971-996. doi:10.1080/09669582.2010.497222Pike, S. (2005). Tourism destination branding complexity. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 14(4), 258-259. doi:10.1108/10610420510609267Zografos, C., & Allcroft, D. (2007). The Environmental Values of Potential Ecotourists: A Segmentation Study. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15(1), 44-66. doi:10.2167/jost572.0(2018). Antecedents and Consequences of Ecotourism Behavior: Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals, Ecological Belief, Willingness to Pay for Ecotourism Services and Satisfaction with Life. Sustainability, 10(3), 789. doi:10.3390/su10030789Weaver, D. B., & Lawton, L. J. (2007). Twenty years on: The state of contemporary ecotourism research. Tourism Management, 28(5), 1168-1179. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.03.004KIRKBY, C. A., GIUDICE, R., DAY, B., TURNER, K., SOARES-FILHO, B. S., OLIVEIRA-RODRIGUES, H., & YU, D. W. (2011). Closing the ecotourism-conservation loop in the Peruvian Amazon. Environmental Conservation, 38(1), 6-17. doi:10.1017/s0376892911000099Luo, Y., & Deng, J. (2007). The New Environmental Paradigm and Nature-Based Tourism Motivation. Journal of Travel Research, 46(4), 392-402. doi:10.1177/0047287507308331Lee, C.-K., Lee, Y.-K., & Wicks, B. E. (2004). Segmentation of festival motivation by nationality and satisfaction. Tourism Management, 25(1), 61-70. doi:10.1016/s0261-5177(03)00060-8Smith, A. J., Tuffin, M., Taplin, R. H., Moore, S. A., & Tonge, J. (2014). Visitor segmentation for a park system using research and managerial judgement. Journal of Ecotourism, 13(2-3), 93-109. doi:10.1080/14724049.2014.963112Neuts, B., Romão, J., Nijkamp, P., & Shikida, A. (2016). Market segmentation and their potential economic impacts in an ecotourism destination. Tourism Economics, 22(4), 793-808. doi:10.1177/1354816616654252Fang Meng, Tepanon, Y., & Uysal, M. (2008). Measuring tourist satisfaction by attribute and motivation: The case of a nature-based resort. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 14(1), 41-56. doi:10.1177/1356766707084218Yolal, M., Rus, R. V., Cosma, S., & Gursoy, D. (2015). A Pilot Study on Spectators’ Motivations and Their Socio-Economic Perceptions of a Film Festival. Journal of Convention & Event Tourism, 16(3), 253-271. doi:10.1080/15470148.2015.1043610Crompton, J. L. (1979). Motivations for pleasure vacation. Annals of Tourism Research, 6(4), 408-424. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(79)90004-5Kim, S.-S., Crompton, J. L., & Botha, C. (2000). Responding to competition: a strategy for Sun/Lost City, South Africa. Tourism Management, 21(1), 33-41. doi:10.1016/s0261-5177(99)00094-1Holden, A., & Sparrowhawk, J. (2002). Understanding the motivations of ecotourists: the case of trekkers in Annapurna, Nepal. International Journal of Tourism Research, 4(6), 435-446. doi:10.1002/jtr.402Pearce, P. L., & Lee, U.-I. (2005). Developing the Travel Career Approach to Tourist Motivation. Journal of Travel Research, 43(3), 226-237. doi:10.1177/0047287504272020Lee, S., Lee, S., & Lee, G. (2013). Ecotourists’ Motivation and Revisit Intention: A Case Study of Restored Ecological Parks in South Korea. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19(11), 1327-1344. doi:10.1080/10941665.2013.852117Ma, A. T. H., Chow, A. S. Y., Cheung, L. T. O., & Liu, S. (2018). Self-determined travel motivation and environmentally responsible behaviour of Chinese visitors to national forest protected areas in South China. Global Ecology and Conservation, 16, e00480. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00480Ma, A., Chow, A., Cheung, L., Lee, K., & Liu, S. (2018). Impacts of Tourists’ Sociodemographic Characteristics on the Travel Motivation and Satisfaction: The Case of Protected Areas in South China. Sustainability, 10(10), 3388. doi:10.3390/su10103388Chow, A. S. Y., Cheng, I. N. Y., & Cheung, L. T. O. (2017). Self-determined travel motivations and ecologically responsible attitudes of nature-based visitors to the Ramsar wetland in South China. Annals of Leisure Research, 22(1), 42-61. doi:10.1080/11745398.2017.1359791Lu, A. C. C., Gursoy, D., & Del Chiappa, G. (2014). The Influence of Materialism on Ecotourism Attitudes and Behaviors. Journal of Travel Research, 55(2), 176-189. doi:10.1177/0047287514541005Nickerson, N. P., Jorgenson, J., & Boley, B. B. (2016). Are sustainable tourists a higher spending market? Tourism Management, 54, 170-177. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2015.11.009Katz, D. (1960). The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24(2, Special Issue: Attitude Change), 163. doi:10.1086/266945Houle, B. J., Sagarin, B. J., & Kaplan, M. F. (2005). A Functional Approach to Volunteerism: Do Volunteer Motives Predict Task Preference? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27(4), 337-344. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2704_6Fodness, D. (1994). Measuring tourist motivation. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(3), 555-581. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(94)90120-1Dolnicar, S. (2002). A Review of Data-Driven Market Segmentation in Tourism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 12(1), 1-22. doi:10.1300/j073v12n01_01Ho, G. T. S., Ip, W. H., Lee, C. K. M., & Mou, W. L. (2012). Customer grouping for better resources allocation using GA based clustering technique. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(2), 1979-1987. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2011.08.045Bieger, T., & Laesser, C. (2002). Market Segmentation by Motivation: The Case of Switzerland. Journal of Travel Research, 41(1), 68-76. doi:10.1177/004728750204100110Ryan, C., & Glendon, I. (1998). Application of leisure motivation scale to tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1), 169-184. doi:10.1016/s0160-7383(97)00066-2Beane, T. P., & Ennis, D. M. (1987). Market Segmentation: A Review. European Journal of Marketing, 21(5), 20-42. doi:10.1108/eum0000000004695Carvache-Franco, M., Carvache-Franco, O., Carvache-Franco, W., Orden-Mejía, M., & Macas-López, C. (2018). Segmentation of coastal marine demand from a National Recreational Area: Villamil Beach, Ecuador. Geographica Pannonica, 22(4), 276-284. doi:10.5937/gp22-18410Juric, B., Cornwell, T. B., & Mather, D. (2002). Exploring the Usefulness of an Ecotourism Interest Scale. Journal of Travel Research, 40(3), 259-269. doi:10.1177/0047287502040003004Kwan, P., Eagles, P. F. J., & Gebhardt, A. (2008). A Comparison of Ecolodge Patrons’ Characteristics and Motivations Based on Price Levels: A Case Study of Belize. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(6), 698-718. doi:10.1080/09669580802397129Cordente-Rodriguez, M., Mondejar-Jimenez, J.-A., & Villanueva-Alvaro, J.-J. (2014). SUSTAINABILITY OF NATURE: THE POWER OF THE TYPE OF VISITORS. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 13(10), 2437-2447. doi:10.30638/eemj.2014.273Sheena, B., Mariapan, M., & Aziz, A. (2014). Characteristics of Malaysian ecotourist segments in Kinabalu Park, Sabah. Tourism Geographies, 17(1), 1-18. doi:10.1080/14616688.2013.865069Gu, X., Lewis, B. J., Niu, L., Yu, D., Zhou, L., Zhou, W., … Dai, L. (2018). Segmentation by domestic visitor motivation: Changbai Mountain Biosphere Reserve, China. Journal of Mountain Science, 15(8), 1711-1727. doi:10.1007/s11629-017-4708-1Jeong, Y., Zielinski, S., Chang, J., & Kim, S. (2018). Comparing Motivation-Based and Motivation-Attitude-Based Segmentation of Tourists Visiting Sensitive Destinations. Sustainability, 10(10), 3615. doi:10.3390/su10103615Ministry of the Environment of Ecuadorhttp://areasprotegidas.ambiente.gob.ec/es/noticias/mae-present%C3%B3-el-portal-web-de-%C3%A1reas-protegidasGalley, G., & Clifton, J. (2004). The Motivational and Demographic Characteristics of Research Ecotourists: Operation Wallacea Volunteers in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Journal of Ecotourism, 3(1), 69-82. doi:10.1080/14724040408668150Lau, A. L. S., & McKercher, B. (2004). Exploration Versus Acquisition: A Comparison of First-Time and Repeat Visitors. Journal of Travel Research, 42(3), 279-285. doi:10.1177/0047287503257502McGehee, N. G., & Kim, K. (2004). Motivation for Agri-Tourism Entrepreneurship. Journal of Travel Research, 43(2), 161-170. doi:10.1177/0047287504268245Jang, S. (Shawn), & Wu, C.-M. E. (2006). Seniors’ travel motivation and the influential factors: An examination of Taiwanese seniors. Tourism Management, 27(2), 306-316. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2004.11.006Formica, S., & Uysal, M. (1998). Market Segmentation of an International Cultural-Historical Event in Italy. Journal of Travel Research, 36(4), 16-24. doi:10.1177/004728759803600402Kastenholz, E., Davis, D., & Paul, G. (1999). Segmenting Tourism in Rural Areas: The Case of North and Central Portugal. Journal of Travel Research, 37(4), 353-363. doi:10.1177/004728759903700405Johns, N., & Gyimóthy, S. (2002). Market Segmentation and the Prediction of Tourist Behavior: The Case of Bornholm, Denmark. Journal of Travel Research, 40(3), 316-327. doi:10.1177/0047287502040003009Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31-36. doi:10.1007/bf02291575Calantone, R. J., & Johar, J. S. (1984). Seasonal Segmentation of the Tourism Market Using a Benefit Segmentation Framework. Journal of Travel Research, 23(2), 14-24. doi:10.1177/004728758402300203Dann, G. M. S. (1981). Tourist motivation an appraisal. Annals of Tourism Research, 8(2), 187-219. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(81)90082-7Etzel, M. J., & Woodside, A. G. (1982). Segmenting Vacation Markets: The Case of the Distant and Near-Home Travelers. Journal of Travel Research, 20(4), 10-14. doi:10.1177/004728758202000403Woodside, A. 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Segmentation by visitor motivation in three Kenyan national reserves. Tourism Management, 28(6), 1464-1471. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.01.01

Nocturnal water loss in mature subalpine Eucalyptus delegatensis tall open forests and adjacent E. pauciflora woodlands

We measured sap flux (S) and environmental variables in four monospecific stands of alpine ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis R. Baker, AA) and snowgum (E. pauciflora Sieb. ex Spreng., SG) in Australia's Victorian Alps. Nocturnal S was 11.8 ± 0.8% of diel totals. We separated transpiration (E) and refilling components of S using a novel modeling approach based on refilling time constants. The nocturnal fraction of diel water loss (fn) averaged 8.6 ± 0.6% for AA and 9.8 ± 1.7% for SG; fn differed among sites but not species. Evaporative demand (D) was the strongest driver of nocturnal E (En). The ratio En/D (Gn) was positively correlated to soil moisture in most cases, whereas correlations between wind speed and Gn varied widely in sign and strength. Our results suggest (1) the large, mature trees at our subalpine sites have greater fn than the few Australian native tree species that have been studied at lower elevations, (2) AA and SG exhibit similar fn despite very different size and life history, and (3) fn may differ substantially among sites, so future work should be replicated across differing sites. Our novel approach to quantifying fn can be applied to S measurements obtained by any method

A multi-species synthesis of physiological mechanisms in drought-induced tree mortality

Widespread tree mortality associated with drought 92 has been observed on all forested continents, and global change is expected to exacerbate vegetation vulnerability. Forest mortality has implications for future biosphere-atmosphere interactions of carbon, water, and energy balance, and is poorly represented in dynamic vegetation models. Reducing uncertainty requires improved mortality projections founded on robust physiological processes. However, the proposed mechanisms of drought-induced mortality, including hydraulic failure and carbon starvation, are unresolved. A growing number of empirical studies have investigated these mechanisms, but data have not been consistently analyzed across species and biomes using a standardized physiological framework. Here we show that xylem hydraulic failure was ubiquitous across multiple tree taxa at drought induced mortality. All species assessed had 60% or higher loss of xylem hydraulic conductivity, consistent with proposed theoretical and modelled survival thresholds. We found diverse responses in non-structural carbohydrate reserves at mortality, indicating that evidence supporting carbon starvation was not universal. Reduced non-structural carbohydrates were more common for gymnosperms than angiosperms, associated with xylem hydraulic vulnerability, and may have a role in reducing hydraulic function. Our finding that hydraulic failure at drought-induced mortality was persistent across species indicates that substantial improvement in vegetation modelling can be achieved using thresholds in hydraulic function

A multi-species synthesis of physiological mechanisms in drought-induced tree mortality

Widespread tree mortality associated with drought 92 has been observed on all forested continents, and global change is expected to exacerbate vegetation vulnerability. Forest mortality has implications for future biosphere-atmosphere interactions of carbon, water, and energy balance, and is poorly represented in dynamic vegetation models. Reducing uncertainty requires improved mortality projections founded on robust physiological processes. However, the proposed mechanisms of drought-induced mortality, including hydraulic failure and carbon starvation, are unresolved. A growing number of empirical studies have investigated these mechanisms, but data have not been consistently analyzed across species and biomes using a standardized physiological framework. Here we show that xylem hydraulic failure was ubiquitous across multiple tree taxa at drought induced mortality. All species assessed had 60% or higher loss of xylem hydraulic conductivity, consistent with proposed theoretical and modelled survival thresholds. We found diverse responses in non-structural carbohydrate reserves at mortality, indicating that evidence supporting carbon starvation was not universal. Reduced non-structural carbohydrates were more common for gymnosperms than angiosperms, associated with xylem hydraulic vulnerability, and may have a role in reducing hydraulic function. Our finding that hydraulic failure at drought-induced mortality was persistent across species indicates that substantial improvement in vegetation modelling can be achieved using thresholds in hydraulic function

Determinants of woody encroachment and cover in African savannas

Savanna ecosystems are an integral part of the African landscape and sustain the livelihoods of millions of people. Woody encroachment in savannas is a widespread phenomenon but its causes are widely debated. We review the extensive literature on woody encroachment to help improve understanding of the possible causes and to highlight where and how future scientific efforts to fully understand these causes should be focused. Rainfall is the most important determinant of maximum woody cover across Africa, but fire and herbivory interact to reduce woody cover below the maximum at many locations. We postulate that woody encroachment is most likely driven by CO2 enrichment and propose a two-system conceptual framework, whereby mechanisms of woody encroachment differ depending on whether the savanna is a wet or dry system. In dry savannas, the increased water-use efficiency in plants relaxes precipitation-driven constraints and increases woody growth. In wet savannas, the increase of carbon allocation to tree roots results in faster recovery rates after disturbance and a greater likelihood of reaching sexual maturity. Our proposed framework can be tested using a mixture of experimental and earth observational techniques. At a local level, changes in precipitation, burning regimes or herbivory could be driving woody encroachment, but are unlikely to be the explanation of this continent-wide phenomenon

Insights into the Dekkera bruxellensis genomic landscape: comparative genomics reveals variations in ploidy and nutrient utilisation potential amongst wine isolates

The yeast Dekkera bruxellensis is a major contaminant of industrial fermentations, such as those used for the production of biofuel and wine, where it outlasts and, under some conditions, outcompetes the major industrial yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In order to investigate the level of inter-strain variation that is present within this economically important species, the genomes of four diverse D. bruxellensis isolates were compared. While each of the four strains was shown to contain a core diploid genome, which is clearly sufficient for survival, two of the four isolates have a third haploid complement of chromosomes. The sequences of these additional haploid genomes were both highly divergent from those comprising the diploid core and divergent between the two triploid strains. Similar to examples in the Saccharomyces spp. clade, where some allotriploids have arisen on the basis of enhanced ability to survive a range of environmental conditions, it is likely these strains are products of two independent hybridisation events that may have involved multiple species or distinct sub-species of Dekkera. Interestingly these triploid strains represent the vast majority (92%) of isolates from across the Australian wine industry, suggesting that the additional set of chromosomes may confer a selective advantage in winery environments that has resulted in these hybrid strains all-but replacing their diploid counterparts in Australian winery settings. In addition to the apparent inter-specific hybridisation events, chromosomal aberrations such as strain-specific insertions and deletions and loss-of-heterozygosity by gene conversion were also commonplace. While these events are likely to have affected many phenotypes across these strains, we have been able to link a specific deletion to the inability to utilise nitrate by some strains of D. bruxellensis, a phenotype that may have direct impacts in the ability for these strains to compete with S. cerevisiae.Anthony R. Borneman, Ryan Zeppel, Paul J. Chambers, Chris D. Curti

Schematic representation of <i>D. bruxellensis</i> strain genomes.

<p>Each of the <i>D. bruxellensis</i> strains is predicted to contain a conserved diploid set of chromosomes. In addition, AWRI1499 and AWRI1608 are predicted to both contain a third full set of chromosomes that have been inherited from more distantly related strains or a closely related species that is unique to each strain (<i>Dekkera x</i> and <i>Dekkera y</i>).</p