Topical Treatment With Bromfenac Reduces Retinal Gliosis and Inflammation After Optic Nerve Crush.

Purpose To study the effect of topical administration of bromfenac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), on retinal gliosis and levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) after complete optic nerve crush (ONC). Methods Adult albino rats were divided into the following groups (n = 8 retinas/group): (1) intact, (2) intact and bromfenac treatment (twice a day during 7 days), (3) ONC (7 days), and (4) ONC (7 days) + bromfenac treatment (twice a day during 7 days). Animals from groups 3 and 4 were imaged in vivo with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) before the procedure and 15 minutes, 3, 5, or 7 days later. Retinas from all groups were analyzed by immunodetection, Western blotting, or enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA). Results Quantification of Brn3a (brain-specific homeobox/POU domain protein 3A) +RGCs (retinal ganglion cells) in cross sections showed that bromfenac treatment does not accelerate ONC-induced degeneration. Cellular retinaldehyde binding protein 1 regulation indicated that bromfenac improves retinal homeostasis in injured retinas. Spectral-domain OCT showed that the thickness of the retina and the retinal nerve fiber layer at 7 days post ONC was significantly reduced in bromfenac-treated animals when compared to untreated animals. In agreement with these data, hypertrophy of astrocytes and Muller cells and expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein and vimentin were greatly diminished by bromfenac treatment. While no changes in cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme COX1 and COX2 expression were observed, there was a significant increase of PGE2 after ONC that was controlled by bromfenac treatment. Conclusions Topical administration of bromfenac is an efficient and noninvasive treatment to control the retinal gliosis and release of proinflammatory mediators that follow a massive insult to the RGC population

Melanopsin+RGCs Are fully Resistant to NMDA-Induced Excitotoxicity

We studied short- and long-term effects of intravitreal injection of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) on melanopsin-containing (m+) and non-melanopsin-containing (Brn3a+) retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). In adult SD-rats, the left eye received a single intravitreal injection of 5µL of 100nM NMDA. At 3 and 15 months, retinal thickness was measured in vivo using Spectral Domain-Optical Coherence Tomography (SD-OCT). Ex vivo analyses were done at 3, 7, or 14 days or 15 months after damage. Whole-mounted retinas were immunolabelled for brain-specific homeobox/POU domain protein 3A (Brn3a) and melanopsin (m), the total number of Brn3a+RGCs and m+RGCs were quantified, and their topography represented. In control retinas, the mean total numbers of Brn3a+RGCs and m+RGCs were 78,903 ± 3572 and 2358 ± 144 (mean ± SD; n = 10), respectively. In the NMDA injected retinas, Brn3a+RGCs numbers diminished to 49%, 28%, 24%, and 19%, at 3, 7, 14 days, and 15 months, respectively. There was no further loss between 7 days and 15 months. The number of immunoidentified m+RGCs decreased significantly at 3 days, recovered between 3 and 7 days, and were back to normal thereafter. OCT measurements revealed a significant thinning of the left retinas at 3 and 15 months. Intravitreal injections of NMDA induced within a week a rapid loss of 72% of Brn3a+RGCs, a transient downregulation of melanopsin expression (but not m+RGC death), and a thinning of the inner retinal layers.This study was supported by the Fundación Séneca, Agencia de Ciencia y Tecnología Región de Murcia (19881/GERM/15), and the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional “una manera de hacer Europa” (SAF2015-67643-P, PI16/00380, RD16/0008/0026 and RD16/0008/0016)

Treatment with tocilizumab or corticosteroids for COVID-19 patients with hyperinflammatory state: a multicentre cohort study (SAM-COVID-19)

Objectives: The objective of this study was to estimate the association between tocilizumab or corticosteroids and the risk of intubation or death in patients with coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) with a hyperinflammatory state according to clinical and laboratory parameters. Methods: A cohort study was performed in 60 Spanish hospitals including 778 patients with COVID-19 and clinical and laboratory data indicative of a hyperinflammatory state. Treatment was mainly with tocilizumab, an intermediate-high dose of corticosteroids (IHDC), a pulse dose of corticosteroids (PDC), combination therapy, or no treatment. Primary outcome was intubation or death; follow-up was 21 days. Propensity score-adjusted estimations using Cox regression (logistic regression if needed) were calculated. Propensity scores were used as confounders, matching variables and for the inverse probability of treatment weights (IPTWs). Results: In all, 88, 117, 78 and 151 patients treated with tocilizumab, IHDC, PDC, and combination therapy, respectively, were compared with 344 untreated patients. The primary endpoint occurred in 10 (11.4%), 27 (23.1%), 12 (15.4%), 40 (25.6%) and 69 (21.1%), respectively. The IPTW-based hazard ratios (odds ratio for combination therapy) for the primary endpoint were 0.32 (95%CI 0.22-0.47; p < 0.001) for tocilizumab, 0.82 (0.71-1.30; p 0.82) for IHDC, 0.61 (0.43-0.86; p 0.006) for PDC, and 1.17 (0.86-1.58; p 0.30) for combination therapy. Other applications of the propensity score provided similar results, but were not significant for PDC. Tocilizumab was also associated with lower hazard of death alone in IPTW analysis (0.07; 0.02-0.17; p < 0.001). Conclusions: Tocilizumab might be useful in COVID-19 patients with a hyperinflammatory state and should be prioritized for randomized trials in this situatio

Identificación y caracterización de la población total de las células ganglionares de la retina en rata : nuevos métodos de trazado, expresión de melanopsina y de factores de transcripción Brn3:estudio de la respuesta neuronal y microglial a la axotomía y efecto del envejecimiento en la retina

Introducción La retina es parte del sistema nervioso central (SNC) y se localiza en la cara interna del globo ocular. Su función principal es la fototransducción de las ondas electromagnéticas del espectro de la luz visible en energía eléctrica. Esta función es realizada por los fotorreceptores (conos y bastones). Tras su procesamiento, la información llega a las células ganglionares de retina (CGR). Las CGR son las únicas neuronas aferentes de la retina y transmiten la información visual al cerebro a través de sus axones, que forman el nervio óptico (NO). En roedores, la mayoría de las CGR proyecta contralateralmente, siendo la población ipsilateral menor del 5%. Dentro de las CGR existe un subtipo que contiene un pigmento fotosensible, la melanopsina, que les confiere la propiedad de la fototransducción. Estas CGR melanopsínicas son responsables principalmente de funciones extravisuales o no formadoras de imágenes, como son el reflejo pupilar o la sincronización del ritmo circadiano con la luz. Objetivos 1º Caracterizar un muevo marcador para identificar las CGR de rata: Brn3a. 2º. Caracterizar la expresión de los factores de transcripción de familia Brn3 en las CGR de rata: Brn3a, Brn3b y Brn3c. 3º. Caracterizar las CGR desplazadas en rata albina y pigmentada. 4º. Caracterizar la población de CGR con proyección retino-retiniana en rata. 5º. Desarrollar nuevos métodos de trazado de las CGR de rata: desde el nervio óptico intacto y desde el tracto óptico. 6º. Analizar el efecto del trazado y la lesión axonal en las CGR melanopsínicas y en la expresión de melanopsina en rata albina y pigmentada. 7º. Caracterizar el efecto a largo plazo de la lesión del nervio óptico en la población general de CGR y CGR melanopsínicas ortotópicas y desplazadas y en el resto de las células que componen la capa de células ganglionares en rata albina y pigmentada. 8º. Caracterizar la respuesta de las células microgliales en la retina de rata tras axotomía del nervio óptico. 9º. Caracterizar el efecto del envejecimiento en la retina de rata albina y pigmentada. Material y Métodos. Resultados y Conclusiones Para identificar las CGR clásicamente se han usado técnicas de trazado. Los trazadores como el Fluorogold® (FG) se aplican o en el NO, para identificar la proyección retinofugal completa, o en los colículos superiores (CS), adonde proyectan el 98,4%% de las CGRs en roedores. En esta tesis hemos puesto a punto dos métodos nuevos de trazado: desde el NO intacto o desde el tracto óptico mediante una inyección bilateral estereotáctica. Ambas técnicas son asequibles, reproducibles y fiables. Además, hemos caracterizado el Brn3a como marcador de CGR. El Brn3a es un marcador fiable y eficiente para identificar y cuantificar las CGR en retinas intactas y con lesión axonal y además, permite analizar la topografía de las CGR después del daño axonal ya que a diferencia de los trazadores neuronales, no presenta interferencia con la microglía fagocítica trazada transcelularmente. Conjuntamente hemos analizado la expresión de los tres miembros de la familia Brn3 en las CGR, y hemos demostrado que el 70% de las CGR co-expresan dos o tres miembros de la familia Brn3 y el 30% restante expresa solamente Brn3a (26%) o Brn3b (4%) en retina de rata. Por tanto, el Brn3a se expresa en todas las CGRs exceptuando las CGR melanopsínicas y la mitad de la población ipsilateral. La mayoría de las CGR se localizan en la capa de las células ganglionares (CCG), conocidas como CGR ortotópicas (CGRo), aunque una pequeña población de CGR se encuentra desplazada a la capa nuclear interna o a la capa plexiforme interna. Estas CGR se llaman células de Dogiel o CGR desplazadas (CGRd). Nosotros hemos estudiado a ambas poblaciones en paralelo. Mientras que las CGR ortotópicas se distribuyen principalmente por la región dorso-central de la retina, las CGR desplazadas tienen una topografía diferente, se encuentran en el ecuador de la retina, con un densidad mayor en la retina temporal y son más abundantes en la rata pigmentada. La mayoría de las CGRd expresan Brn3a, y una pequeña proporción expresa melanopsina, estas últimas se distribuyen de manera similar a las CGRo melanopsínicas: son más abundantes en la retina dorso-temporal. Existe una pequeña población de CGR que proyecta a la retina contralateral, éstas son las CGR de proyección retino-retiniana (CGR ret-ret). Hemos corroborado que esta proyección es mayor en animales jóvenes que en adultos y que se encuentran preferentemente en la retina nasal y, además hemos demostrado que éstas expresan Brn3a o melanopsina y que, las que lo hacen, son las que se mantienen en los animales adultos. En la CCG, además de las CGRo hay otras poblaciones celulares: células endoteliales, células gliales y las células amacrinas desplazadas (CAd). En esta tesis hemos descrito que el 45% de las neuronas de la CCG son CGRs y el 55% restante son CAd. Y si excluimos las células endoteliales, las células gliales representarían un 10% de la población total de la capa de células ganglionares. En esta tesis, también analizamos como el albinismo afecta a las CGR. El albinismo es una enfermedad hereditaria, en la que hay una ausencia parcial o total de pigmentación que, entre otras, provoca una serie de anomalías en el sistema visual tales como una menor proyección ipsilateral y número de CGRd y, la agudeza visual y el nistagmus optocinético están afectados. Nosotros hemos demostrado que el albinismo produce los mismos defectos en la población melanopsínica que en el resto de las CGR: disminución en el número de CGRd-m y una proporción inferior de ipsilateralidad. Las lesiones en el SNC provocan la muerte neuronal con secuelas permanentes e irrecuperables, ya que las neuronas del SNC no se reemplazan. En esta tesis hemos utilizado dos modelos de degeneración de SNC que afectan específicamente a las CGR: la lesión traumática axonal por sección (SNO) o aplastamiento (ApNO) de nervio óptico, y la hipertensión ocular (HTO) como modelo de glaucoma aumentando la presión intraocular por fotocoagulación láser de la malla trabecular y las venas perilimbares y episclerales. Usando el modelo de la elevación de la presión intraocular hemos observado que las CGR desplazadas presentan la misma respuesta que las CGR ortotópicas. Y los modelos de axotomía de nervio óptico también nos han permitido documentar que estas lesiones causan la pérdida específica de CGR (ortotópicas y desplazadas), sin afectar a otras poblaciones de la capa de células ganglionares. Sin embargo, dentro de las CGR, las CGR melanopsinicas tienen un curso temporal de pérdida diferente, son más resistentes a la lesión, pero la expresión de melanopsina se infra-regula transitoriamente como respuesta tanto la axotomía como al trazado retrógrado desde el NO. Así, este hallazgo debe ser tenido en cuenta cuando se utilice la melanopsina para estudiar la población de las CGR intrínsicamente fotosensibles. Las células de la microglía (CM) son los macrófagos residentes del SNC. En condiciones normales se encuentran en estado de vigilancia. Sin embargo, tras una lesión neurodegenerativa se activan fagocitando desechos celulares. La aproximación experimental que se utiliza para identificar las CM que han fagocitado una neurona (o CM fagocíticas, CMF) se basa en el hecho de que las CM acumulan en sus fagolisosomas productos exógenos, proceso conocido como marcaje transcelular. Así, cuando una CM fagocita una CGR en degeneración previamente trazada, acumula el trazador siendo posible distinguirla de las CM que no han fagocitado. En esta tesis hemos cuantificado y analizado la distribución de las CM en la CCG y la CPI tanto en animales intactos como después de ambos modelos de axotomia (SNO y ApNO). La aparición de las CMF después del insulto aumenta al aumentar el tiempo post-lesión y se distribuyen en la región central de la retina donde hay una mayor pérdida de las CGR, a diferencia de los animales intactos donde se distribuyen homogéneamente. Aunque éste aumento de CMF es más rápido después de la SNO, existe una correlación lineal y topográfica entre la aparición de las CMF y la pérdida de CGR. La aparición de las CMF en la CCG y el descenso de las CM no fagocíticas en la CPI a 14d de ambas lesiones, sugiere que tras la lesión de las CGR las CM migran entre ambas capas. La pérdida funcional o estructural de la actividad sensorial relacionada con la edad, es muy relevante cuando afecta al sistema visual, ya que de él dependemos más que de otros sentidos. No sólo los componentes puramente físicos implicados en la visión (córnea, cristalino, humor vítreo y humor acuoso) sufren cambios estructurales que influyen en la eficiencia de la transmisión lumínica perjudicando la calidad de la visión, sino que hay pérdida numérica y funcional en las poblaciones celulares implicadas en la transmisión de la información hasta el cerebro que aumenta con la edad. En esta tesis hemos comprobado que el envejecimiento causa principalmente un déficit funcional de la retina en ambas estirpes de rata analizadas. Pero anatómicamente, ni el número de células en la CCG, ni el transporte axonal anterógrado disminuyen con la edad, solamente en la cepa pigmentada, hay un descenso del número de fotoreceptores tipo cono. Y mediante un análisis “in vivo” (SD-OCT), también hemos observado un alargamiento y adelgazamiento progresivo de la retina. Para la realización de esta tesis ha sido necesario el desarrollo de rutinas informáticas que permitan tanto la cuantificación como la representación grafica de la distribución de las diversas poblaciones celulares estudiadas en la retina. Todas estas metodologías automáticas fueron realizadas en colaboración con D. Manuel Jiménez López. Introduction The retina is part of the central nervous system (CNS) and it is located in the posterior part of the ocular globe. The main function of the retina is to sense light. Photoreceptors, cones and rods and send the luminous information to retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) through intermediate neurons. RGCs are the only afferent retinal neurons and transmit this information from the retina to the retinorecipient areas in the brain through their axons that form the optic nerve (ON). In rodents, the majority of RGC project to the contralateral superior colliculi (SCi), being the ipsilateral projection smaller than 5%. There is a subtype of RGC that expresses a photosensitive pigment, melanopsin, that confers them the ability of phototransduction. Melanopsin+RGC (m+RGC) are responsible for the non visual functions triggered by light, such as the pupilary reflex and the circadian photoentrainment. Objetives 1st. To characterize Brn3a as a marker of rat RGCs. 2nd. To characterize the expression of Brn3 transcription factors, Brn3a, Brn3b and Brn3c, in rat RGCs. 3rd. To characterize the population of displaced RGCs in albino and pigmented rats. 4th. To characterize the population of RGCs that project retino-retinially. 5th. To investigate the efficiency of two new methods to trace rat RGCs: from the intact optic nerve and from the optic tract. 6th. To analyze the effect of tracing or axotomy on the expresión of melanopsin and detection of melanopsin+RGCs in albino and pigmented rat RGCs. 7th. To analyze in albino and pigmented rats the long term effect of optic nerve injury on RGCs and m+RGCs orthotopic and displaced, and on the rest of the ganglion cell layer cells. 8th. To analyze the microglial response in the rat retina after optic nerve axotomy. 9th. To study in albino and pigmented rats the effect of aging on the retina. Material and Methods. Results and Conclusions Retrograde tracing with tracers such as Fluorogold® (FG) is the classical approach to identify RGCs. Tracers are applied in the ON to identify the whole retinofugal projection or on the SC, where 98.4% of the RGC project to. In these thesis, we have tuned up two new methods to trace rat RGCs: from the intact optic nerve and from the optic tract by a bilateral stereotactic injection. Both techniques are affordable, reproducible and reliable. In addition we have characterized the Brn3a as a marker of rat RGCs. Brn3a is a reliable marker to identify, quantify and assess the viability of rat RGCs in health and disease. In addition, Brn3a immunodetection allows quantifying and determining the topography of RGCs after a given injury without interference of transcellularly- labelled microglial cells. We have analyzed the expression of the three members of the Brn3 family RGC, and we have shown that 70% of RGC co-express two or three Brn3 members and the remaining 30% expresses only Brn3a (25%) or Brn3b (4%). Brn3a is expressed by all RGCs except melanopsin+ ones and half of the ipsilateral projection. Most of the RGC are placed in the ganglion cell layer (GCL), these are orthotopic RGC (oRGC). However a small proportion of them is located in the inner nuclear layer or in the inner plexiform layer. These are known as Dogiel's cells or displaced RGC (dRGC). We have studied both counterpart together. While the ortothopic RGCs, are denser in the dorso-central retina, the displaced RGCs have a different topography, they are found in the retinal equator, with a higher density in the temporal retina and are more abundant in pigmented animals. Most of the dRGCs express Brn3a, and a small proportion express melanopsin, the last ones have a similar distribution than the m+-oRGCs: they are more abundant in the dorso-temporal retina. There is a small number of RGC projects to the contralateral retina, these are retino-retinal projecting RGC (ret-ret RGC). We have beared out the retino-retinal projection is minute but higher in young than in adult animals. Ret-ret RGCs are mainly nasal, and express Brn3a or melanopsin and those do it, are preserved in adult animals. In the GCL besides oRGC there are endothelial cells, glial cells and displaced amacrine cells (dAC). In this work, we have described that 45%percent of neurons in the GCL are RGCs, and 55% are displaced amacrine cells. And, if we exclude the endothelial cells, glial cells represent 10% of the total cell population of the ganglion cell layer. In this thesis, we have also analyzed how albinism affects RGCs. Albinism is a hereditary disease caused by the partial or total lack of pigmentation that causes a long list of abnormalities in the visual system such as an impaired visual acuity and optokinetic nystagmus and defects in the crossing of the retinofugal projections. Here, we added to this knowledge, that albinism produces in the melanopsin population the same defects than in the general RGC population: reduced number of displaced m+RGCs and a lower ipsilaterally. CNS lesions induce the permanent and irreversible death of the affected neurons, since CNS neurons do not proliferate and thus, are not replaced. In this thesis we have used two models of RGC degeneration: traumatic axonal injury (axotomy) transecting (ONT) or crushing (ONC) the optic nerve, and ocular hypertension (OHT), a model of glaucoma created by increasing the intraocular pressure with laser photocoagulation of the trabecular meshwork, the perilimbar and episcleral veins. Using the ocular hypertension, we have observed that the dRGCs and oRGC respond similarly to lesion. And the axotomy models also allowed us to document that after axotomy only RGCs are lost (ortothopic and displaced) without affecting other populations in the ganglion cell layer. However, within RGCs, the m+RGCs have a different course of loss, they are more resistant to injury, but the expression of melanopsin is temporarily under-regulated in response to both axotomy and retrograde tracing from the NO. Thus, this finding should be considered when melanopsin is used to study the population of the intrinsically photosensitive CGR. Microglial cells (MC) are the CNS resident macrophages. In the healthy CNS they are found in a resting (surveying) state. However, during a neurodegenerative process, they activate and among other functions, phagocytose the cellular debris. The experimental approach to identify CM that have phagocytose a neuron (phagocytic microglial cells, PMC) is based on the fact that CM accumulate in their phagolysosomes exogenous compounds, such as tracers. This process is known as transcellular tracing. Thus, when a MC engulfs a traced RGC it is possible to distinguish it from the rest of MC. In this thesis, we quantified and analyzed the distribution of MC in the GCL and the IPL in intact animal or after both axotomy models (SNO and APNO). The number of CMF after the insult increases with time post-injury. These PMC are distributed in the central region of the retina where the loss of RGCs is greater, unlike in intact animals where they are homogeneously distributed. The appearance of PMC correlates linearly and topographically with the loss of RGCs. The increase of PMC in the GCL and the decrease of MC in the IPL suggest that upon RGC injury, MC migrate between both layers. Aging is very relevant when affects the visual system, since we depend on vision more than on any other senses. Not only the physical components of the eye (cornea, lens, vitreous and aqueous humor) through which the light passes age, there is also a progressive neuronal loss and degeneration. In this thesis we found that aging causes, mainly, a functional deficit in the retina in both rat strains. Anatomically, neither the number of cells in the GCL nor the anterograde axonal transport diminishes with age, however, in the pigmented, but not in the albino rat, there is a loss of cone photoreceptors. And by “in vivo” analysis (SD-OCT), we have also observed a progressive elongation and thinning of the retina. For the consecution of this thesis it has been necessary to develop several automated routines to perform the quantification and graphic representation of the different cell populations analyzed. All these automated methodologies were created in collaboration with D. Manuel Jimenez López

Microglial dynamics after axotomy-induced retinal ganglion cell death

Abstract Background Microglial cells (MCs) are the sentries of the central nervous system. In health, they are known as surveying MCs because they examine the tissue to maintain the homeostasis. In disease, they activate and, among other functions, become phagocytic to clean the cellular debris. In this work, we have studied the behavior of rat retinal MCs in two models of unilateral complete intraorbital optic nerve axotomy which elicit a different time course of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss. Methods Albino Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into these groups: (a) intact (no surgery), (b) fluorogold (FG) tracing from the superior colliculi, and (c) FG tracing + crush or transection of the left optic nerve. The retinas were dissected from 2 days to 2 months after the lesions (n = 4–12 group/lesion and time point) and then were subjected to Brn3a and Iba1 double immunodetection. In each intact retina, the total number of Brn3a+RGCs and Iba+MCs was quantified. In each traced retina (b and c groups), FG-traced RGCs and phagocytic microglial cells (PMCs, FG+Iba+) were also quantified. Topographical distribution was assessed by neighbor maps. Results In intact retinas, surveying MCs are homogenously distributed in the ganglion cell layer and the inner plexiform layer. Independently of the axotomy model, RGC death occurs in two phases, one quick and one protracted, and there is a lineal and topographical correlation between the appearance of PMCs and the loss of traced RGCs. Furthermore, the clearance of FG+RGCs by PMCs occurs 3 days after the actual loss of Brn3a expression that marks RGC death. In addition, almost 50% of MCs from the inner plexiform layer migrate to the ganglion cell layer during the quick phase of RGC loss, returning to the inner plexiform layer during the slow degeneration phase. Finally, in contrast to what happens in mice, in rats, there is no microglial phagocytosis in the contralateral uninjured retina. Conclusions Axotomy-induced RGC death occurs earlier than RGC clearance and there is an inverse correlation between RGC loss and PMC appearance, both numerically and topographically, suggesting that phagocytosis occurs as a direct response to RGC death rather than to axonal damage

Whole number, distribution and co-expression of brn3 transcription factors in retinal ganglion cells of adult albino and pigmented rats.

The three members of the Pou4f family of transcription factors: Pou4f1, Pou4f2, Pou4f3 (Brn3a, Brn3b and Brn3c, respectively) play, during development, essential roles in the differentiation and survival of sensory neurons. The purpose of this work is to study the expression of the three Brn3 factors in the albino and pigmented adult rat. Animals were divided into these groups: i) untouched; ii) fluorogold (FG) tracing from both superior colliculli; iii) FG-tracing from one superior colliculus; iv) intraorbital optic nerve transection or crush. All retinas were dissected as flat-mounts and subjected to single, double or triple immunohistofluorescence The total number of FG-traced, Brn3a, Brn3b, Brn3c or Brn3 expressing RGCs was automatically quantified and their spatial distribution assessed using specific routines. Brn3 factors were studied in the general RGC population, and in the intrinsically photosensitive (ip-RGCs) and ipsilateral RGC sub-populations. Our results show that: i) 70% of RGCs co- express two or three Brn3s and the remaining 30% express only Brn3a (26%) or Brn3b; ii) the most abundant Brn3 member is Brn3a followed by Brn3b and finally Brn3c; iii) Brn3 a-, b- or c- expressing RGCs are similarly distributed in the retina; iv) The vast majority of ip-RGCs do not express Brn3; v) The main difference between both rat strains was found in the population of ipsilateral-RGCs, which accounts for 4.2% and 2.5% of the total RGC population in the pigmented and albino strain, respectively. However, more ipsilateral-RGCs express Brn3 factors in the albino than in the pigmented rat; vi) RGCs that express only Brn3b and RGCs that co-express the three Brn3 members have the biggest nuclei; vii) After axonal injury the level of Brn3a expression in the surviving RGCs decreases compared to control retinas. Finally, this work strengthens the validity of Brn3a as a marker to identify and quantify rat RGCs

Inherited Photoreceptor Degeneration Causes the Death of Melanopsin-Positive Retinal Ganglion Cells and Increases Their Coexpression of Brn3a

Purpose: To study the population of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (melanopsin-expressing RGCs, m+RGCs) in P23H-1 rats, a rat model of inherited photoreceptor degeneration. Methods: At postnatal (P) times P30, P365, and P540, retinas from P23H dystrophic rats (line 1, rapid degeneration; and line 3, slow degeneration) and Sprague Dawley (SD) rats (control) were dissected as whole-mounts and immunodetected for melanopsin and/or Brn3a. The dendritic arborization of m+RGCs and the numbers of Brn3a+RGCs and m+RGCs were quantified and their retinal distribution and coexpression analyzed. Results: In SD rats, aging did not affect the population of Brn3a+RGCs or m+RGCs or the percentage that showed coexpression (0.27%). Young P23H-1 rats had a significantly lower number of Brn3a+RGCs and showed a further decline with age. The population of m+RGCs in young P23H-1 rats was similar to that found in SD rats and decreased by 22.6% and 28.2% at P365 and P540, respectively, similarly to the decrease of the Brn3a+RGCs. At these ages the m+RGCs showed a decrease of their dendritic arborization parameters, which was similar in both the P23H-1 and P23H-3 lines. The percentage of coexpression of Brn3a was, however, already significantly higher at P30 (3.31%) and increased significantly with age (10.65% at P540). Conclusions: Inherited photoreceptor degeneration was followed by secondary loss of Brn3a+RGCs and m+RGCs. Surviving m+RGCs showed decreased dendritic arborization parameters and increased coexpression of Brn3a and melanopsin, phenotypic and molecular changes that may represent an effort to resist degeneration and/or preferential survival of m+RGCs capable of synthesizing Brn3a.Supported by grants from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness: SAF-2012-38328; ISCIII-FEDER “Una manera de hacer Europa” PI13/00643, PI13/01266, and BFU2012-36845, RETICS: RD12/0034/0014, and RD12/0034/0010

A novel in vivo model of focal light emitting diode-induced cone-photoreceptor phototoxicity: neuroprotection afforded by brimonidine, BDNF, PEDF or bFGF.

We have investigated the effects of light-emitting diode (LED)-induced phototoxicity (LIP) on cone-photoreceptors and their protection with brimonidine (BMD), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) or basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF). In anesthetized, dark adapted, adult albino rats a blue (400 nm) LED was placed perpendicular to the cornea (10 sec, 200 lux) and the effects were investigated using Spectral Domain Optical Coherence Tomography (SD-OCT) and/or analysing the retina in oriented cross-sections or wholemounts immune-labelled for L- and S-opsin and counterstained with the nuclear stain DAPI. The effects of topical BMD (1%) or, intravitreally injected BDNF (5 µg), PEDF (2 µg), CNTF (0.4 µg) or bFGF (1 µg) after LIP were examined on wholemounts at 7 days. SD-OCT showed damage in a circular region of the superotemporal retina, whose diameter varied from 1,842.4±84.5 µm (at 24 hours) to 1,407.7±52.8 µm (at 7 days). This region had a progressive thickness diminution from 183.4±5 µm (at 12 h) to 114.6±6 µm (at 7 d). Oriented cross-sections showed within the light-damaged region of the retina massive loss of rods and cone-photoreceptors. Wholemounts documented a circular region containing lower numbers of L- and S-cones. Within a circular area (1 mm or 1.3 mm radius, respectively) in the left and in its corresponding region of the contralateral-fellow-retina, total L- or S-cones were 7,118±842 or 661±125 for the LED exposed retinas (n = 7) and 14,040±1,860 or 2,255±193 for the fellow retinas (n = 7), respectively. BMD, BDNF, PEDF and bFGF but not CNTF showed significant neuroprotective effects on L- or S-cones. We conclude that LIP results in rod and cone-photoreceptor loss, and is a reliable, quantifiable model to study cone-photoreceptor degeneration. Intravitreal BDNF, PEDF or bFGF, or topical BMD afford significant cone neuroprotection in this model