Chromosomal organization at the level of gene complexes

Metazoan genomes primarily consist of non-coding DNA in comparison to coding regions. Non-coding fraction of the genome contains cis-regulatory elements, which ensure that the genetic code is read properly at the right time and space during development. Regulatory elements and their target genes define functional landscapes within the genome, and some developmentally important genes evolve by keeping the genes involved in specification of common organs/tissues in clusters and are termed gene complex. The clustering of genes involved in a common function may help in robust spatio-temporal gene expression. Gene complexes are often found to be evolutionarily conserved, and the classic example is the hox complex. The evolutionary constraints seen among gene complexes provide an ideal model system to understand cis and trans-regulation of gene function. This review will discuss the various characteristics of gene regulatory modules found within gene complexes and how they can be characterized

Language change in language obsolescence

All over the world, linguistic minorities are losing ground to dominant and more prestigious languages. Cultural practices contract, and language use dwindles. As a traditional language is "retreating, contracting, as it gradually falls into disuse" (Dixon 1991:199), the changes it undergoes may be drastic. Language endangerment, attrition and, ultimately, obsolescence and loss are primarily caused by social factors. A major reason is intensive pressure from another group whose language is perceived as offering greater political and economic prestige and advantages