Le français aux Pays-Bas (XVIIe-XIXe siècles) : de la langue du bilinguisme élitaire à une langue du plurilinguisme d’éducation

Dans les Pays-Bas septentrionaux, le français, largement pratiqué du XVIe au XIXe siècle, peut être langue de la distinction sociale pour les élites, langue de la distinction religieuse pour les réfugiés protestants francophones, langue de la distinction professionnelle pour les savants et les négociants, langue de la puissance étrangère. Nous présentons dans cet article les différents publics utilisant le français, les modes d’apprentissage et les divers usages du français. Au XVIIe siècle, le français véhicule le modèle de la civilité de l’honnête homme, au XVIIIe siècle, il offre une ouverture à la modernité en permettant d’accéder à des savoirs nouveaux. Au XIXe siècle, on revalorise la langue maternelle, le néerlandais, et le statut du français se transforme de langue seconde en première langue étrangère. L’apprentissage du français et plus particulièrement l’initiation à la littérature française jouent un rôle essentiel dans la formation identitaire de l’apprenant. Dès le XVIIe siècle, on constate une prise de conscience des caractères nationaux divergents, français et hollandais. Au cours du XVIIIe siècle, on rejette progressivement le modèle social à la française, mais on utilise la langue française et les auteurs classiques français pour inculquer aux apprenants les valeurs nationales hollandaises et susciter et entretenir l’amour de la patrie.In the Low Countries, French, as a widespread language between the 16th and the 19th centuries, could be a language of social distinction for the elite, a language of religious distinction for French-speaking protestant refugees, a language of professional distinction for scientists and merchants, the language of the foreign power for everyone. This paper reviews the various categories of French users, their learning paths, and how French was used. In the 17th century, French carries with it a model for civility, that of the honnête home.  In the 18th century, it offers an opening into modernity, allowing an access to new knowledge. In the 19th century, Netherlandish – the mother tongue – is promoted, making French the first foreign language rather than a second language. French language learning, and especially in initiation to French literature, play a major role in the construction of the learner’s identity. Already in the 17th century, however, the difference between French and Dutch national features starts becoming clear. During the 18th century, the French social model is slowly rejected, yet, French language and French literature were used to teach Dutch national values and create and maintain patriotism

Avant-propos

Ce numéro de Documents réunit des contributions présentées lors du symposium international organisé à Utrecht le 25 mai 2007 dans le cadre des activités de la SIHFLESet en hommage à Willem Frijhoff, Professeur d’histoire moderne à l’université libre d’Amsterdam et membre fondateur de la SIHFLES. Utrecht était le lieu tout désigné pour aborder la thématique de cette rencontre, à savoir la relation de la langue et de l’identité, dans leur rapport à la religion ou inscrites dans le champ religie..

Le français aux Pays-Bas (XVIIe-XIXe siècles) : de la langue du bilinguisme élitaire à une langue du plurilinguisme d’éducation

Dans les Pays-Bas septentrionaux, le français, largement pratiqué du XVIe au XIXe siècle, peut être langue de la distinction sociale pour les élites, langue de la distinction religieuse pour les réfugiés protestants francophones, langue de la distinction professionnelle pour les savants et les négociants, langue de la puissance étrangère. Nous présentons dans cet article les différents publics utilisant le français, les modes d’apprentissage et les divers usages du français. Au XVIIe siècle, le français véhicule le modèle de la civilité de l’honnête homme, au XVIIIe siècle, il offre une ouverture à la modernité en permettant d’accéder à des savoirs nouveaux. Au XIXe siècle, on revalorise la langue maternelle, le néerlandais, et le statut du français se transforme de langue seconde en première langue étrangère. L’apprentissage du français et plus particulièrement l’initiation à la littérature française jouent un rôle essentiel dans la formation identitaire de l’apprenant. Dès le XVIIe siècle, on constate une prise de conscience des caractères nationaux divergents, français et hollandais. Au cours du XVIIIe siècle, on rejette progressivement le modèle social à la française, mais on utilise la langue française et les auteurs classiques français pour inculquer aux apprenants les valeurs nationales hollandaises et susciter et entretenir l’amour de la patrie.In the Low Countries, French, as a widespread language between the 16th and the 19th centuries, could be a language of social distinction for the elite, a language of religious distinction for French-speaking protestant refugees, a language of professional distinction for scientists and merchants, the language of the foreign power for everyone. This paper reviews the various categories of French users, their learning paths, and how French was used. In the 17th century, French carries with it a model for civility, that of the honnête home.  In the 18th century, it offers an opening into modernity, allowing an access to new knowledge. In the 19th century, Netherlandish – the mother tongue – is promoted, making French the first foreign language rather than a second language. French language learning, and especially in initiation to French literature, play a major role in the construction of the learner’s identity. Already in the 17th century, however, the difference between French and Dutch national features starts becoming clear. During the 18th century, the French social model is slowly rejected, yet, French language and French literature were used to teach Dutch national values and create and maintain patriotism

Apprentissage de la langue et comparatisme culturel en Hollande : le métier de maître de langue (XVIIe-XIXe siècle)

Aux Pays-Bas, l’enseignement du français a connu une institutionnalisation tardive avec la loi de 1863  pour le secondaire et celle de 1876 pour le supérieur. Mais dans les Provinces-Unies il y a une longue tradition du métier de maître de langues. Du XVIIe au XIXe siècles, les maîtres, souvent plurilingues, ont réfléchi sur l’exercice de leur métier et ont produit des méthodes et autres ouvrages didactiques (Pielat, Mauger, du Casquet, Baudet, etc.). Le maître qui malgré les manuels est irremplaçable, doit être conscient des besoins de ses élèves ; il s’interroge sur la qualité et l’efficacité de son enseignement. Par son enseignement de langue, il transmet un grand nombre de savoirs à l’élève et fonctionne finalement comme un médiateur social, éducatif et culturel. Tentant de joindre l’utile à l’agréable pour le profit des élèves, il leur fait découvrir la langue et la culture étrangères mais aussi leur propre monde. En ce sens il est un acteur de la formation identitaire de ses apprenants.It was only in 1863 that French became part of the curriculum at Dutch secondary schools and in 1876 it received full status as a subject taught at university. However in Holland the teaching of French as a foreign language has a much longer tradition. From the seventeenth century onwards language teachers, often multi-lingual themselves, reflected on the practicalities of their speciality and produced a vast number of textbooks and other educational works (Pielat, Mauger, Du Casquet, Baudet etc.). The teacher, who in spite of his books remains essential, should be conscious of his pupils’ needs, make sure of the quality of his teaching and achieve the desired results. Through his work as a teacher he confers to his pupil a vast amount of knowledge in many fields, so that in fact he also acts as a social, educational and cultural intermediary. In an effort to combine the useful and the pleasurable he enables his pupils not only to find out about a foreign language and its culture, but also their own world. Thus his action helps to shape the identity of those he teaches

Differential modulation of the N2 and P3 event-related potentials by response conflict and inhibition

Background: Developing reliable and specific neural markers of cognitive processes is essential to improve understanding of healthy and atypical brain function. Despite extensive research there remains uncertainty as to whether two electrophysiological markers of cognitive control, the N2 and P3, are better conceptualised as markers of response inhibition or response conflict. The present study aimed to directly compare the effects of response inhibition and response conflict on the N2 and P3 event-related potentials, within-subjects. Method: A novel hybrid go/no-go flanker task was performed by 19 healthy adults aged 18 to 25 years while EEG data were collected. The response congruence of a central target stimulus and 4 flanking stimuli was manipulated between trials to vary the degree of response conflict. Response inhibition was required on a proportion of trials. N2 amplitude was measured at two frontal electrode sites; P3 amplitude was measured at 4 midline electrode sites. Results: N2 amplitude was greater on incongruent than congruent trials but was not enhanced by response inhibition when the stimulus array was congruent. P3 amplitude was greater on trials requiring response inhibition; this effect was more pronounced at frontal electrodes. P3 amplitude was also enhanced on incongruent compared with congruent trials. Discussion: The findings support a role for N2 amplitude as a marker of response conflict and for the frontal shift of the P3 as a marker of response inhibition. This paradigm could be applied to clinical groups to help clarify the precise nature of impaired action control in disorders such as attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD)

Clinical Presentation of a Complex Neurodevelopmental Disorder Caused by Mutations in ADNP

Background In genome-wide screening studies for de novo mutations underlying autism and intellectual disability, mutations in the ADNP gene are consistently reported among the most frequent. ADNP mutations have been identified in children with autism spectrum disorder comorbid with intellectual disability, distinctive facial features, and deficits in multiple organ systems. However, a comprehensive clinical description of the Helsmoortel-Van der Aa syndrome is lacking. Methods We identified a worldwide cohort of 78 individuals with likely disruptive mutations in ADNP from January 2014 to October 2016 through systematic literature search, by contacting collaborators, and through direct interaction with parents. Clinicians filled in a structured questionnaire on genetic and clinical findings to enable correlations between genotype and phenotype. Clinical photographs and specialist reports were gathered. Parents were interviewed to complement the written questionnaires. Results We report on the detailed clinical characterization of a large cohort of individuals with an ADNP mutation and demonstrate a distinctive combination of clinical features, including mild to severe intellectual disability, autism, severe speech and motor delay, and common facial characteristics. Brain abnormalities, behavioral problems, sleep disturbance, epilepsy, hypotonia, visual problems, congenital heart defects, gastrointestinal problems, short stature, and hormonal deficiencies are common comorbidities. Strikingly, individuals with the recurrent p.Tyr719* mutation were more severely affected. Conclusions This overview defines the full clinical spectrum of individuals with ADNP mutations, a specific autism subtype. We show that individuals with mutations in ADNP have many overlapping clinical features that are distinctive from those of other autism and/or intellectual disability syndromes. In addition, our data show preliminary evidence of a correlation between genotype and phenotype.This work was supported by grants from the European Research Area Networks Network of European Funding for Neuroscience Research through the Research Foundation–Flanders and the Chief Scientist Office–Ministry of Health (to RFK, GV, IG). This research was supported, in part, by grants from the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (Grant No. SFARI 303241 to EEE) and National Institutes of Health (Grant No. R01MH101221 to EEE). This work was also supported by the Italian Ministry of Health and ‘5 per mille’ funding (to CR). For many individuals, sequencing was provided by research initiatives like the Care4Rare Research Consortium in Canada or the Deciphering Developmental Disorders (DDD) study in the UK. The DDD Study presents independent research commissioned by the Health Innovation Challenge Fund (Grant No. HICF-1009–003), a parallel funding partnership between the Wellcome Trust and the Department of Health, and the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute (Grant No. WT098051). The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the Wellcome Trust or the Department of Health. The study has UK Research Ethics Committee approval (10/H0305/83, granted by the Cambridge South Research Ethics Committee, and GEN/284/12 granted by the Republic of Ireland Research Ethics Committee). The research team acknowledges the support of the National Institute for Health Research, through the Comprehensive Clinical Research Network

Orbital Observations of Dust Lofted by Daytime Convective Turbulence

Over the past several decades, orbital observations of lofted dust have revealed the importance of mineral aerosols as a climate forcing mechanism on both Earth and Mars. Increasingly detailed and diverse data sets have provided an ever-improving understanding of dust sources, transport pathways, and sinks on both planets, but the role of dust in modulating atmospheric processes is complex and not always well understood. We present a review of orbital observations of entrained dust on Earth and Mars, particularly that produced by the dust-laden structures produced by daytime convective turbulence called “dust devils”. On Earth, dust devils are thought to contribute only a small fraction of the atmospheric dust budget; accordingly, there are not yet any published accounts of their occurrence from orbit. In contrast, dust devils on Mars are thought to account for several tens of percent of the planet’s atmospheric dust budget; the literature regarding martian dust devils is quite rich. Because terrestrial dust devils may temporarily contribute significantly to local dust loading and lowered air quality, we suggest that martian dust devil studies may inform future studies of convectively-lofted dust on Earth

Investigations of the Mars Upper Atmosphere with ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter

The Martian mesosphere and thermosphere, the region above about 60 km, is not the primary target of the ExoMars 2016 mission but its Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) can explore it and address many interesting issues, either in-situ during the aerobraking period or remotely during the regular mission. In the aerobraking phase TGO peeks into thermospheric densities and temperatures, in a broad range of latitudes and during a long continuous period. TGO carries two instruments designed for the detection of trace species, NOMAD and ACS, which will use the solar occultation technique. Their regular sounding at the terminator up to very high altitudes in many different molecular bands will represent the first time that an extensive and precise dataset of densities and hopefully temperatures are obtained at those altitudes and local times on Mars. But there are additional capabilities in TGO for studying the upper atmosphere of Mars, and we review them briefly. Our simulations suggest that airglow emissions from the UV to the IR might be observed outside the terminator. If eventually confirmed from orbit, they would supply new information about atmospheric dynamics and variability. However, their optimal exploitation requires a special spacecraft pointing, currently not considered in the regular operations but feasible in our opinion. We discuss the synergy between the TGO instruments, specially the wide spectral range achieved by combining them. We also encourage coordinated operations with other Mars-observing missions capable of supplying simultaneous measurements of its upper atmosphere