Bruk av pesticider i Nepal : helse-effekter og økonomiske kostnader for bønder i Central mid-hills-regionen

The thesis evaluates the negative effect that intensive agriculture brings, particularly in terms of the effect of pesticide use on human and on the environment, and the associated economic cost. Vegetable production is an important source of farm income, but this has become increasingly reliant on the excessive use of chemical pesticides. This not only pollutes the environment but also affects farmers’ health. The thesis hypothesises that the excessive and injudicious use of pesticides in intensive farming will adversely affect human health and increased economic costs for the farmer. A study was carried out in Ansi khola and Jhikhu khola watersheds of central mid-hills of Nepal, during 2008 and 2009 to observe the effect of the use of chemical pesticides on intensive farming. The objectives were (i) to review factors affecting pesticide use in developing countries; (ii) to assess risks of pesticide use for farmers by assessing erythrocyte acetylecholinesterase activity (AChE); (iii) to value the risk of pesticide use for farmers and for environmental health; and (iv) to assess the impact of the associated economic costs of pesticide use for vulnerable populations within an agrarian society. Data was collected through household surveys, group discussions, and individual interviews. The Test-mate ChE Cholinesterase Test System was used to monitor erythrocyte AChE activity before and after pesticide application seasons. Cost-of-illness, defensive expenditures, and willingness to pay (WTP) approaches were applied for valuing health and environmental costs of pesticide use. To this, an opportunity cost of spraying time, and amount spent on purchasing chemical pesticides were added for estimating total cost of pesticide use. The objectives have been addressed in four separate but interrelated studies. The synthesis of these studies revealed that farmers were significantly exposed to chemical pesticides. The use of chemical pesticides resulted in acute health symptoms, increased economic costs, and the costs of pesticide use in proportion to household cash incomes was likely to be higher for the most vulnerable group within the society, the small farmers. Specifically, the first paper reviews “continuing issues in the limitations of pesticide use in developing countries” and found that impact of pesticide use in crop production is complex and inter-connected. This topic requires an interdisciplinary approach; without this, farmers in the developing world will tend to incur economic costs as a result of health and environmental degradation. The second study, “Knowledge, attitude and practices of pesticide use and acetylcholinesterase depression among farm workers in Nepal” found low levels of care with regard to pesticide use and high level of awareness among the farmer with regard to the environmental impacts of pesticide use. However, farmers failed to take adequate safety precautions. Current levels of use of pesticides were sufficient to cause acute health symptoms and AChE depressions. The third study, “Health and environmental costs of pesticide use in vegetable farming in Nepal” takes account of both the health and environmental cost of pesticide use for farmers, and revealed that exposed farmers were likely to have to carry increased economic costs as a result of pesticide use. If provided with safe alternatives to chemical pesticides, farmers were willing to pay more than the cost of existing pesticides in order to protect their health and environment. The final study, “Distribution of costs of pesticide use by household economy” showed an uneven distribution of the cost of pesticide use between households. On average, the health costs of illness associated with pesticide use was equivalent to nearly 5% of agricultural cash income, which was likely to be higher for small-scale households (5.7%) than the large-scale (3.6%). Similarly, the total economic costs of pesticide use for farmers amounted to 15% of agricultural cash income, and/or 5% of total household cash income. The medium-scale households likely to incur the highest economic costs of pesticide use; however, the cost in proportion to household cash incomes was likely to be higher for small-scale households. The thesis recommends an increased emphasis on seeking alternative ways of controlling pests, such as the use of IPM along with further education, training and awareness for local farmers.Avhandlingen evaluerer den negative effekten som intensivt jordbruk medfører, spesielt når det gjelder effekten av sprøytemiddelbruk på mennesker og miljøet samt den resulterende økonomiske kostnaden. Grønnsaksproduksjon er en viktig inntektskilde for bønder, men det har blitt stadig mer avhengig av et overforbruk av kjemiske sprøytemidler. Dette forårsaker ikke bare forurensning av miljøet, det påvirker også bøndenes helse. Avhandlingen setter frem hypotesen om at for stor og lite gjennomtenkt sprøytemiddelbruk i intensivt jordbruk har en negativ effekt på menneskers helse, og at det medfører økte økonomiske kostnader for bonden. Det ble gjennomført en undersøkelse i vannskillene Ansi khola og Jhikhu khola i de sentrale mellomliggende åsene i Nepal i løpet av 2008 og 2009 for å observere effekten av sprøytemiddelbruk i intensivt jordbruk. Formålet var (i) å gjennomgå faktorer som påvirker bruk av sprøytemidler i utviklingsland; (ii) å gjennomgå risikoen ved bruk av sprøytemidler for bønder ved å vurdere acetylcholinesterase-aktivitet (AChE) i røde blodceller; (iii) å verdsette risikoene ved sprøytemiddelbruk for bønder og miljøet; og for (iv) å vurdere påvirkningen av den resulterende økonomiske kostnaden ved sprøytemiddelbruk for sårbare befolkningsgrupper i et jordbrukssamfunn. Informasjonen ble innhentet gjennom undersøkelser i husholdninger, gruppesamtaler og intervjuer med enkeltpersoner. Testsystemet Test-mate ChE Cholinesterase ble brukt til å overvåke AChE aktiviteten i røde blodceller før og etter sprøyting. Tilnærminger som kostnader ved sykdom, forsvarsutgifter og villighet til å betale (WTP) ble brukt til å vurdere helse og miljøkostnadene ved sprøytemiddelbruk. Til dette ble det lagt til mulighetskostnaden ved sprøytetid og kjøpsprisen på kjemiske sprøytemidler for å kunne anslå den totale kostnaden ved sprøytemiddelbruk. Målene beskrives i fire separate, men sammenknyttede undersøkelser. Undersøkelsene viser at bøndene ble utsatt for kjemiske sprøytemidler i betydelig grad. Bruk av kjemiske sprøytemidler resulterte i akutte symptomer og økte økonomiske kostnader. Det var også sannsynlig at kostnadene ved sprøytemiddelbruk i forhold til husholdningens kontantinntekt var høyere for den mest sårbare gruppen i samfunnet, nemlig småbønder. Spesifikt fremgår det av den første undersøkelsen, "kontinuerlige problemer med begrensning av bruk av sprøytemidler i utviklingsland"" (continuing issues in the limitations of pesticide use in developing countries), at innvirkningen av sprøytemiddelbruk på avlinger er kompleks og sammenkoblet. Dette temaet krever en tverrfaglig tilnærming – uten det vil bønder i utviklingsland fortsette å generere økonomiske kostnader som følge av negativ innvirkning på helse og miljø. Den andre undersøkelsen, "Kunnskaper, holdning og bruk av sprøytemidler og depresjon relatert til acetylcholinesterase blant bønder i Nepal" (Knowledge, attitude and practices of pesticide use and acetylcholinesterase depression among farm workers in Nepal), fant at bøndene utviste liten forsiktighet med bruken av sprøytemidler, men at de var svært bevisste på sprøytemidlenes påvirkning på miljøet. Bøndene tok imidlertid ikke tilstrekkelige sikkerhetshensyn. De gjeldende nivåene for bruk av sprøytemidler var tilstrekkelige til å forårsake akutte helsemessige symptomer og AChE-depresjon. Den tredje undersøkelsen, "Helse- og miljøkostnader ved bruk av sprøytemidler ved dyrking av grønnsaker i Nepal" (Health and environmental costs of pesticide use in vegetable farming in Nepal), viser både den helsemessige og miljømessige kostnaden for bønder ved bruk av sprøytemidler, og den avslørte at utsatte bønder sannsynligvis ville måtte bære økte økonomiske kostnader som et resultat av sprøytemiddelbruk. Når bøndene ble introdusert til sikre alternativer til kjemiske sprøytemidler, var de villige til å betale mer enn kostnaden for de eksisterende sprøytemidlene for å beskytte helsen sin og miljøet. Den siste undersøkelsen, "Distribusjon av kostnader ved sprøytemiddelbruk etter husholdningsøkonomi" (Distribution of costs of pesticide use by household economy), viste en ujevn fordeling av kostnader ved sprøytemiddelbruk mellom husholdninger. I gjennomsnitt tilsvarte helsekostnader ved sykdom relatert til sprøytemiddelbruk nesten 5 % av kontantinntekten fra jordbruket, noe som mer sannsynlig var høyere for småskala husholdninger (5,7 %) enn for storskala husholdninger (3,6 %). Den totale økonomiske kostnaden ved sprøytemiddelbruk for bøndene tilsvarte 15 % av kontantinntekten fra jordbruket og/eller 5 % av den totale kontantinntekten til husholdningen. Det er mest sannsynlig at mellomskala husholdninger genererer de høyeste økonomiske kostnadene ved sprøytemiddelbruk, mens derimot kostnaden i forhold til kontantinntekten til husholdningen var mest sannsynlig høyere for småskala husholdninger. Det anbefales i avhandlingen av det legges større vekt på å finne alternative måter å kontrollere skadedyr på, for eksempel ved bruk av IPM i kombinasjon med utdanning, opplæring og bevisstgjøring for lokale bønder

Pesticide Use in Nepal: Understanding Health Costs from Short-term Exposure

Occupational health, well researched in developed countries, remains neglected in developing countries. One issue of particular importance is the use of pesticides on farms, which can have both chronic and acute impacts on human health. This paper focuses on acute health impacts associated with pesticide exposure in rural Nepal. Based on data from 291 households, the study finds that the magnitude of exposure to insecticides and fungicides can significantly influence the occurrence of health symptoms. The predicted probability of falling sick from pesticiderelated symptoms is 133% higher among individuals who apply pesticides compared to individuals in the same household who are not directly exposed. Households bear an annual health cost of NPR 287 ($4) as a result of pesticide exposure. These costs vary with fungicide exposure. A ten percent increase in hours of exposure increases costs by about twenty-four percent. In aggregate, pesticide exposure contributes to a health burden of NPR 1,105,782 (US$ 15,797) per year in the study area. Although pesticide use in Nepal is low relative to many other countries in the world, this study, which is the first of its kind in Nepal, suggests that farmers and policy makers need to become aware of the health impacts of pesticide use as they continue to promote its use in Nepal

Pesticide exposure : a growing problem for Nepal's farmers

This policy brief is based on SANDEE working paper no. 28-07, "Pesticide use in Nepal : understanding health costs from short-term exposure"Vegetable farming is an important income generating activity in parts of rural Nepal. However, vegetable farming is pesticide intensive and pesticide exposure is beginning to emerge as a problem. A SANDEE study examines the impacts of pesticide use on vegetable farmers in the mid-hills area of Nepal, some 40km east of Kathmandu. The study finds that farmers and their families face medical bills and other costs as they attempt to deal with the problem of pesticide exposure. Farmers spray their vegetables approximately two times per month. The resulting pesticide exposure costs NPR 1,105,782 (US $ 15,797) per year

Understanding farmers’ knowledge, attitudes and practices of pesticide use in Nepal: synthesis of a systematic literature review

Literature suggests a deeper understanding of farmers’ knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) of pesticide use in agriculture, especially in developing countries, to identify interventions to reduce pesticide use in agriculture. In this paper, we thus performed a systematic review of literature on KAP of farmers on chemical pesticide use in Nepal through a systematic literature search on Scopus web repository published between 2000 and 2021. We got 114 publications initially, and with a well-defined inclusion and exclusion criteria, we finally reviewed 29 articles for data extraction. The results indicate (i) an inadequate KAP of farmers on pesticide use. For example, three in four farmers were found to wash their clothes after pesticide spray. One in four farmers wore boots and only one in ten farmers wore glasses during pesticide spray. Approximately 54% of farmers take a shower after pesticide spray and just one in four farmers bury empty pesticide containers in the soil. Prior studies identified that the lack of awareness and training on the handling practices is the major cause of pesticide misuse; and through formal education and introducing integrated pest management strategies for controlling pests could reduce pesticide misuse. Another notable finding is the lack of KAP theoretical understanding in the prior publications. Many studies in Nepal studied much less on ‘attitude” but much higher on “practice” of pesticide usage. We thus propose a new KAP study framework for future research to understand ground-level behavioral change and improve the effectiveness of the KAP-related programs and interventions

A review on history of organic farming in the current changing context in Nepal

Worldwide, with the increase in awareness of health and environmental concerns, demand for organic agricultural products is increasing, however, its adoption in Nepal at the field level is minimal (0.30% of the total agricultural land area). Exploring the history of organic agriculture could answer, “why its growth, despite the increasing demand, is minimal?” The history of organic agriculture for commerce in Nepal is little known. This study thus explores the scope and history of commercial organic agriculture in Nepal. The paper identifies a few historical landmarks of organic agriculture; and while doing so, it describes the world history of organic agriculture. The study observed that a ‘pure’ form of organic agriculture in Nepal started in 1987, when an American research scholar established a commercial farm. Since then, it advanced until 1992, and then ‘merged’ with permaculture. The organic agriculture movement rejuvenated again in 2002 into the 10th five years plan. Much of the national policy documents on organic agriculture favored ‘income’ and perceived organic products as luxurious goods. As a result, much of the innovation in organic agriculture, government priorities, and people’s perception inclined towards earning dollars rather than environmental conservation and sustainability of the farming system. The movement of organic agriculture in Nepal deviated from its philosophical grounds and the government's priority increased on earnings, resulting in some myths in the Nepalese society on organic agriculture. All these factors caused minimal growth of organic agriculture, despite its great scope at national and international levels

Farming in the mountains of Nepal: crops, soil fertility, livelihoods and farm-forest linkages

In national plans, policies, and earlier development programs, livelihoods of mountain people in the Nepal Himalayas were overlooked, rendering them more susceptible to climatic risk and disaster. The management of marginal mountain agricultural land is crucial for food security, improved living conditions, and environmental protection. For enhancing livelihoods and ecological benefits, mountain agriculture is vital, however, a consolidated review on mountain farming is limited in Nepal. We used "mountain" AND "Nepal" AND "farming" OR "agriculture" in the literature's title published between 1978 and 2021 on Google Scholar and did an in-depth review of papers on the four thematic areas: mountain crops, soil fertility, livelihoods, and farm-forestry linkages. We observed a variety of nutrient-rich mountain crops with a market potential as niche products, low and deteriorating soil fertility of agricultural lands, a weakening of the farm-forest links, and an increase in the diversity of mountain livelihood choices. Small landholdings, labor outmigration mainly men, feminization of mountain farming, and food insecurity are the greatest challenges to the growth of agriculture in mountainous regions. There are, however, ample opportunities to make mountain regions green through agroforestry and community forests, to improve livelihoods by introducing niche value chains for products, to explore payment for ecosystem services through downstream-upstream linkages, and to recognize their traditional knowledge and practices through citizen science research and development

Nutritional, ecological and livelihood significance of Moringa oleifera: A review

The potential ecological and livelihood benefits of Moringa plants are often overlooked. There is a need to raise awareness and encourage farmers and decision makers to adopt Moringa on marginal and degraded lands with changing climate risks. Previous studies have focused mainly on the pharmacological uses and oil content from a commercial point of view and failed to explore its ecological benefits and economic potential to address the growing problems of global food insecurity, malnutrition, and climate risks. Planting Moringa on unused and marginal land can improve soil fertility, food production, and resilience to climate change, offering a significant opportunity for diversification of livelihoods and economic development in the changing climate. Henceforth, this study compiles scientific evidence through a systematic literature search to highlight the ecological benefits and livelihood opportunities associated with the use of Moringa. Initially, we retrieved 206 pieces of global literature and, through the application of inclusion and exclusion criteria, extracted information from 22 articles. Various studies have consistently shown that Moringa leaves are highly nutritious and that their consumption can combat food and nutrition insecurity in low-income countries. Its seeds offer the potential for the commercial production of oils with heart-healthy properties. The oil is stable and suitable for cooking and its quality varies depending on location and environmental factors. When included in the diet, Moringa leaves improve the quality and quantity of goat milk and support the growth of fish in aquaculture. The extract of Moringa provides versatile uses in water purification, offering sustainable solutions to water pollution. We thus conclude that Moringa's diverse applications can contribute to the livelihood enhancement and economic well-being of poor and marginalized farmers in low-income countries. Planting Moringa trees in abandoned croplands and other degraded areas can have positive ecological and socioeconomic outcomes for rural communities. However, to support smallholders in low-income countries, favorable policies, field-based research evidences, and products development are crucial

Rapid Assessment of Socioeconomic Effect and Fear of COVID-19 Lockdown in Mugu District of Nepal

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has created a unique crisis–psychological problems like fear and disruption in the household economy. Poor households are particularly affected as their livelihoods are already fragile. The objective of this study was to understand rural people’s perception, fear levels, and the associated behavioural and socio-economic impacts of the COVID-19 lockdown.  Methods: The study rapidly interviewed 109 respondents from two rural municipalities in Mugu. Being rapid in design, this study interviewed those respondents (18 years or above providing consent) who visited one of the out-reach clinics for health care services.  Data were collected through mobile and preventive measures were ensured during data collection process. This study is a sub-part of a research study in Mugu (Nepal Health Research Council Reg. no. 354/2020) as an immediate project management requirement for the same study in Mugu. Results: We did not find any gender wise differences in fear, both males and females were equally afraid of getting infected or dying from COVID-19. Almost all respondents had a mask, but there was a significant gap of 11% (P<0.05) in mask access when compared gender wise. The one-way ANOVA showed that people who were extremely afraid of the COVID-19 pandemic had higher percentage loss of household income (p<0.05). On average, household monthly earnings, compared to pre-pandemic levels, were reduced. The loss was further intensified by the presence of vulnerable members. Conclusion: The COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown have intensified fear, reduced household earnings and economic activities, and disrupted access to markets and food consumption. Nevertheless, the preventive safe hygiene behaviours that are practiced during this pandemic shall be capitalized for sustainable better health effects

Differences on the Wheat Trait Preferences Between Women and Men from the Same Household

Public breeding programs rarely consider farmers' needs and preferences, especially gender based preferences, in developing improved varieties for farmers. Our research examined how personal, household, agronomic and ecological characteristics of wheat-growers in Bihar, India, affect female and male farmers' wheat trait choices. A total of 1,003 households with both male and female from the same household were interviewed. The results imply that gender influences the preferences for wheat traits. Some traits are favored by both men and women, however in other instances there are striking disparities. Men chose wheat varieties that are well adapted to extreme climate conditions, have a higher grain yield, and produce chapatis with a superior taste, while women preferred wheat types with superior chapati making quality, higher grain yield, and high market prices. Other socioeconomic, agronomic, cultural, and geolocation factors also had a considerable impact on trait preferences. These human dimensions of traits preferred by women and men farmers may be considered when selecting combinations of traits to develop breeding product profiles for certain market segments

The global burden of adolescent and young adult cancer in 2019 : a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019

Background In estimating the global burden of cancer, adolescents and young adults with cancer are often overlooked, despite being a distinct subgroup with unique epidemiology, clinical care needs, and societal impact. Comprehensive estimates of the global cancer burden in adolescents and young adults (aged 15-39 years) are lacking. To address this gap, we analysed results from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2019, with a focus on the outcome of disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), to inform global cancer control measures in adolescents and young adults. Methods Using the GBD 2019 methodology, international mortality data were collected from vital registration systems, verbal autopsies, and population-based cancer registry inputs modelled with mortality-to-incidence ratios (MIRs). Incidence was computed with mortality estimates and corresponding MIRs. Prevalence estimates were calculated using modelled survival and multiplied by disability weights to obtain years lived with disability (YLDs). Years of life lost (YLLs) were calculated as age-specific cancer deaths multiplied by the standard life expectancy at the age of death. The main outcome was DALYs (the sum of YLLs and YLDs). Estimates were presented globally and by Socio-demographic Index (SDI) quintiles (countries ranked and divided into five equal SDI groups), and all estimates were presented with corresponding 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs). For this analysis, we used the age range of 15-39 years to define adolescents and young adults. Findings There were 1.19 million (95% UI 1.11-1.28) incident cancer cases and 396 000 (370 000-425 000) deaths due to cancer among people aged 15-39 years worldwide in 2019. The highest age-standardised incidence rates occurred in high SDI (59.6 [54.5-65.7] per 100 000 person-years) and high-middle SDI countries (53.2 [48.8-57.9] per 100 000 person-years), while the highest age-standardised mortality rates were in low-middle SDI (14.2 [12.9-15.6] per 100 000 person-years) and middle SDI (13.6 [12.6-14.8] per 100 000 person-years) countries. In 2019, adolescent and young adult cancers contributed 23.5 million (21.9-25.2) DALYs to the global burden of disease, of which 2.7% (1.9-3.6) came from YLDs and 97.3% (96.4-98.1) from YLLs. Cancer was the fourth leading cause of death and tenth leading cause of DALYs in adolescents and young adults globally. Interpretation Adolescent and young adult cancers contributed substantially to the overall adolescent and young adult disease burden globally in 2019. These results provide new insights into the distribution and magnitude of the adolescent and young adult cancer burden around the world. With notable differences observed across SDI settings, these estimates can inform global and country-level cancer control efforts. Copyright (C) 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.Peer reviewe