Ecological validity of Session RPE method for quantifying internal training load in Fencing

Session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) is known to significantly relate to heart rate (HR) based methods of quantifying internal training load (TL) in a variety of sports. However, to date this has not been investigated in fencing and was therefore the aim of this study. TL was calculated by multiplying the session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) with exercise duration, and through Heart rate (HR) -based methods calculated using Banister’s and Edward’s TRIMP. Seven male elite foil fencers (Mean ± SD: Age = 22.3 ± 1.6 years, height = 181.3 ± 6.5 cm, body mass = 77.7 ± 7.6 kg) were monitored over the period of one competitive season. The sRPE and HR of 67 training sessions and three competitions (87 poule bouts and 12 knockout rounds) were recorded and analysed. Correlation analysis was used to determine any relationships between sRPE and HR-based methods, accounting for individual variation, mode of training (footwork drills vs. sparring sessions) and stage of competition (poules vs. knockouts). Across two footwork sessions, sRPE, Banister’s and Edward’s TRIMP were found to be reliable, with coefficient of variation values of 6.0, 5.2 and 4.5% respectively. Significant correlations with sRPE for individual fencers (r = 0.84 – 0.98) and across mode of exercise (r = 0.73 – 0.85) and competition stages (r = 0.82 – 0.92) were found with HR-based measures. sRPE is a simple and valuable tool coaches can use to quantify TL in fencing

Competition intensity and fatigue in elite fencing

As yet, no studies have characterised fencing competitions. This was investigated in nine elite male foilists across two competitions, where countermovement jump (CMJ) height, testosterone (T), cortisol (C), alpha-amylase (AA) and immunoglobulin A (IgA), were obtained. Heart rate (HR) was measured throughout competitions and blood lactate (BL) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured post bouts. Average (± SD) scores for RPE, BL and HR (average, max and percentage of time ≥ 80% HRmax) were highest in the knockout bouts compared to poules (8.5 ± 1.3 vs. 5.7 ± 1.3, 3.6 ± 1.0 vs. 3.1 ± 1.4 mmol/L, 171 ± 5 vs. 168 ± 8 bpm, 195 ± 7 vs. 192 ± 7 bpm, 74 vs. 68%) however, only significant (p .05), increased throughout competition and dropped thereafter. While responses of C, AA and IgA showed a tendency to increase during competition and drop thereafter (T and T:C doing the opposite), no significant differences were noted for any analyte. Results suggest that fencing is a high-intensity anaerobic sport, relying on alactic energy sources, however, some bouts evoke BL values of ≥ 4 mmol/L and thus derive energy from anaerobic glycolysis. High HR’s appear possible on account of ample within and between-bout rest. The small competition load associated with fencing competitions may explain the non-significant findings found

Physical characteristics underpinning repetitive lunging in fencing

Given the repetitive demand to execute lunging and changes in direction within fencing, the ability to sustain these at maximal capacity is fundamental to performance. The aim of this study was threefold. Firstly to provide normative values for this variable referred to as repeat lunge ability (RLA) and secondly to identify the physical characteristics that underpin it. Thirdly, was to establish if a cause and effect relationship existed by training the associated characteristics. Assessment of lower body power, reactive strength, speed, change of direction speed (CODS) and a sport specific RLA were conducted on senior and junior elite male fencers (n = 36). Fencers were on average (± SD) 18.9 ± 3.2 years of age, 174.35 ± 10.42 cm tall, 70.67 ± 7.35 kg in mass, and 8.5 ± 4.2 years fencing experience. The RLA test had average work times of 16.03 s ± 1.40 and demonstrated "large" to "very large" associations with all tested variables, but in particular CODS (r = .70) and standing broad jump (SBJ; r = -68). Through linear regression analysis, these also provided a two-predictor model accounting for 61% of the common variance associated with RLA. A cause and effect relationship with SBJ and CODS was confirmed by the training group, where RLA performance in these fencers improved from 15.80 ± 1.07 s to 14.90 ± 0.86 s, with the magnitude of change reported as "moderate" (ES = 0.93). Concurrent improvements were also noted in both SBJ (216.86 cm ± 17.15 vs. 221.71 ± 17.59 cm) and CODS (4.44 ± 0.29 s s. 4.31 ± 0.09 s) and while differences were only significant in SBJ, magnitudes of change were classed as "small" (ES = 0.28) and "moderate" (ES = 0.61)respectively. In conclusion, to improve RLA strength and conditioning coaches should focus on improving lower-body power and reactive strength, noting that jump training and plyometrics designed to enhance horizontal propulsion may be most effective, and translate to improvement in CODS also

Is salivary cortisol moderating the relationship between salivary testosterone and hand-grip strength in healthy men?

This study examined the moderating effect of cortisol (C) on the relationship between testosterone (T) and hand-grip strength (HGS) in healthy young men. Sixty-five males were monitored for salivary T, C and HGS before and 15 min after a short bout (5 × 6-s trials) of sprint cycling exercise. Sprint exercise promoted (p < .05) positive changes in T (6.1 ± 24.9%) and HGS (3.4 ± 7.5%), but a negative C response (−14.4 ± 33.1%). The T and C measures did not independently predict HGS, but a significant T × C interaction was found in relation to these outcomes. Further testing revealed that pre-test T and HGS were negatively associated (p < .05), but only in men with high C levels. The exercise changes in T and HGS were also negatively related in men with low C levels (p < .05), but no relationship was seen in men with high C levels. In summary, complex relationships between T and HGS emerged when considering C as a moderating variable. The pre-test combination of high C and low T levels favoured absolute HGS, whereas low pre-test C levels and a smaller T change were linked to larger HGS changes. These associations suggest that, in the current format, T is not necessarily anabolic to muscle strength in healthy young men. Such complexities could also explain some of the inconsistent T relationships with physical performance in lesser trained male populations

Ricardo flies Ryanair: Strategic human resource management and competitive advantage in a Single European Aviation Market

How and why are some firms, such as Ryanair, able to consistently record industry-leading profitability that sustains a competitive advantage over their rivals? HRM plays a critical role in four widely recognised profit-generating mechanisms, albeit not always in ways predicted by mainstream strategic HRM. Studies of HRMperformance grounded in the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm invariably focus on the human resources already controlled by the firm – specifically, resources that are rare, inimitable, non-substitutable and can be exploited through organisation (RINO) – rather than strategic factor markets (SFMs) where firms acquire their human resources. In doing so, these studies overlook the industrial relations and wider institutional context that might variously promote, permit or preclude particular HR policies and practices. It is only when different profit-generating mechanisms, either in isolation or combination, are activated under the auspicious conditions of a particular time and place that HRM contributes to sustained competitive advantage

Planning and Leveraging Event Portfolios: Towards a Holistic Theory

This conceptual paper seeks to advance the discourse on the leveraging and legacies of events by examining the planning, management, and leveraging of event portfolios. This examination shifts the common focus from analyzing single events towards multiple events and purposes that can enable cross-leveraging among different events in pursuit of attainment and magnification of specific ends. The following frameworks are proposed: (1) event portfolio planning and leveraging, and (2) analyzing events networks and inter-organizational linkages. These frameworks are intended to provide, at this infancy stage of event portfolios research, a solid ground for building theory on the management of different types and scales of events within the context of a portfolio aimed to obtain, optimize and sustain tourism, as well as broader community benefits

The Anthropometric and Physiological Characteristics of Elite Rugby Athletes

This is the first article to review the physical and physiological characteristics required for elite rugby performance within both Rugby Union (RU) and Rugby League (RL). Anthropometric characteristics such as height and mass, plus physiological characteristics such as speed and muscular strength, have previously been advocated as key discriminators of playing level within rugby. This review identifies key physical and physiological properties required for elite performance in rugby and attempts to explain why they are required. There are differences between competitive standards such that, at the elite level, athletes are heaviest (RU forwards ~108 kg, backs ~94 kg; RL forwards ~104 kg, backs ~95 kg) with lowest % body fat (RU forwards ~16%, backs ~14%; RL forwards ~14%, backs ~11%), they have most fat-free mass and are strongest (Back squat: RU forwards ~165 kg, backs ~145 kg; RL forwards ~188 kg, backs ~ 168 kg. Bench press: RU forwards ~125 kg, backs ~111 kg; RL forwards ~119 kg, backs ~113 kg) and fastest (10 m: RU forwards ~1.85 s, backs ~1.73 s; 10 m RL forwards ~1.72 s, backs ~1.66 s). We also have unpublished data that indicate contemporary RU athletes have less body fat and are stronger than the published data suggest. Regardless, well-developed speed, agility, lower-body power and strength characteristics are vital for elite performance, probably reflect both environmental (training, diet, etc.) and genetic factors, distinguish between competitive levels and are therefore important determinants of elite status in rugby

Concussion-Associated Gene Variant COMT rs4680 Is Associated With Elite Rugby Athlete Status

Objective: Concussions are common match injuries in elite rugby, and reports exist of reduced cognitive function and long-term health consequences that can interrupt or end a playing career and produce continued ill health. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between elite rugby status and 8 concussion-associated risk polymorphisms. We hypothesized that concussion-associated risk genotypes and alleles would be underrepresented in elite rugby athletes compared with nonathletes. Design: A case-control genetic association study.Setting:  Institutional (university). Participants: Elite White male rugby athletes [n = 668, mean (SD) height 1.85 (0.07) m, mass 102 (12) kg, and age 29 (7) years] and 1015 nonathlete White men and women (48% men). Interventions: Genotype was the independent variable, obtained by PCR of genomic DNA using TaqMan probes.Main Outcome Measure:  Elite athlete status with groups compared using χ2 and odds ratio (OR). Results: The COMT rs4680 Met/Met (AA) genotype, Met allele possession, and Met allele frequency were lower in rugby athletes (24.8%, 74.6%, and 49.7%, respectively) than nonathletes (30.2%, 77.6%, and 54.0%; P &lt; 0.05). The Val/Val (GG) genotype was more common in elite rugby athletes than nonathletes (OR 1.39, 95% confidence interval 1.04-1.86). No other polymorphism was associated with elite athlete status. Conclusions: Elite rugby athlete status is associated with COMT rs4680 genotype that, acting pleiotropically, could affect stress resilience and behavioral traits during competition, concussion risk, and/or recovery from concussion. Consequently, assessing COMT rs4680 genotype might aid future individualized management of concussion risk among athletes.

Association of ACTN3 R577X but not ACE I/D gene variants with elite rugby union player status and playing position

We aimed to quantify the ACE I/D and ACTN3 R577X (rs1815739) genetic variants in elite rugby athletes (rugby union and league), compare genotype frequencies to controls and between playing positions. The rugby athlete cohort consisted of 507 Caucasian men, including 431 rugby union athletes that for some analyses were divided into backs and forwards and into specific positional groups: front five, back row, half backs, centers and back three. Controls were 710 Caucasian men and women. Real-time PCR of genomic DNA was used to determine genotypes using TaqMan probes and groups were compared using Chi-square and odds ratio (OR) statistics. Correction of p-values for multiple comparisons was according to Benjamini-Hochberg. There was no difference in ACE I/D genotype between groups. ACTN3 XX genotype tended to be underrepresented in rugby union backs (15.7%) compared to forwards (24.8%; P=0.06). Interestingly, the 69 back three players (wings and full backs) in rugby union included only six XX genotype individuals (8.7%), with the R allele more common in the back three (68.8%) than controls (58.0%; χ2=6.672, P=0.04; OR=1.60) and forwards (47.5%; χ2=11.768, P=0.01; OR=2.00). Association of ACTN3 R577X with playing position in elite rugby union athletes suggests inherited fatigue resistance is more prevalent in forwards while inherited sprint ability is more prevalent in backs, especially wings and full backs. These results also demonstrate the advantage of focusing genetic studies on a large cohort within a single sport, especially when intra-sport positional differences exist, instead of combining several sports with varied demands and athlete characteristics