Lifestyle and socio-demographic factors associated with high-risk HPV infection in UK women

The world age-standardised prevalence of high-risk HPV (hrHPV) infection among 5038 UK women aged 20–59 years, with a low-grade smear during 1999–2002, assessed for eligibility for TOMBOLA (Trial Of Management of Borderline and Other Low-grade Abnormal smears) was 34.2%. High-risk HPV prevalence decreased with increasing age, from 61% at ages 20–24 years to 14–15% in those over 50 years. The age-standardised prevalence was 15.1, 30.7 and 52.7%, respectively, in women with a current normal, borderline nuclear abnormalities (BNA) and mild smear. In overall multivariate analyses, tertiary education, previous pregnancy and childbirth were associated with reduced hrHPV infection risk. Risk of infection was increased in non-white women, women not married/cohabiting, hormonal contraceptives users and current smokers. In stratified analyses, current smear status and age remained associated with hrHPV infection. Data of this type are relevant to the debate on human papillomavirus (HPV) testing in screening and development of HPV vaccination programmes

To the issue of development of the chancellor of justice institution as a guarantor of the constitutional rights and freedoms (on the example the republic of Estonia)

В работе излагаются основные этапы исторического развития института канцлера юстиции как гаранта конституционных прав граждан в Эстонской Республике. Анализируются проблемы расширения функций деятельности института канцлера юстиции. Конституционный институт канцлера юстиции был восстановлен и в то же время с принятием Конституции Эстонской Республики путем народного голосования в 1992 г. получил новое значение в Эстонии. Посвященная этому институту ст. 7 гл. 12 была о канцлере юстиции. С 1999 г. содержание функции института канцлера юстиции стало расширяться. Если до 1940 г. канцлер юстиции выполнял в основном обязанности советника юстиции Президента, то с 1992 г. к этому прибавились еще функция конституционного надзора и функция по вопросам инициирования привлечения к уголовной ответственности высших государственных служащих и членов парламента; теперь содержание института стало расширяться также путем добавления обязанностей омбудсмена. Начиная с XXI в. канцлер юстиции выполняет в Эстонской Республике также функцию омбудсмена, с 2011 г. здесь наблюдается дополнительная дифференциация его обязанностей. Добавились обязанности детского омбудсмена, не исключено, что в ближайшее время можно ожидать также прибавления обязанностей уполномоченного по половому равноправию. Существенным является то, что со вступлением в силу с 2016 г. нового закона о защите детей более высокий стандарт качества защиты детей прибавит детскому омбудсмену также новые обязанности.In the article the main stages of the historical development of the institution of the Chancellor of Justice as the guarantor of constitutional rights and freedoms of Estonian citizens are presented. The authors of the article provide the analysis of the issues, concerning the expansion of functional activities and responsibilities of the Chancellor of Justice in Estonia. The authors of the article point out that Constitutional institution of Chancellor of Justice was restored and at the same time got its new meaning in 1992 when adopted at referendum of the Constitution of the Republic of Estonia. It is noted that the 7-th Article of Chapter 12 was dedicated to this institution of Chancellor of Justice. Since 1999 the functions of the institution of Chancellor of Justice have become wider. Before 1940 the Chancellor of Justice was mostly the President's legal advisor. In 1992 the Constitutional supervising role was added, also so far Attorney Generals rule to start criminal proceedings of higher civil servants and Members of Parliament. From the 21 century the Ombudsman function was added and since 2011 additional differentiation of Ombudsmans function has taken place. Firstly, the Children's Ombudsman's functions were added to the functions of the Chancellor of Justice and it is expected that in the near future the functions of the Gender Equality Commissioner will be added as well. It is important that from 2016 the new Child Protection Law will be enforced which marks the beginning of higher standard era for children's rights and provides additional tasks for the Chancellor of Justice