Teaching and Learning English in Bilingual Education

Since its beginning some twenty years ago bilingual education programs for minority language (ML) students in the U.S. have been the subject of heated debate. The most controversial feature of these programs has been their use of non-English languages for a substantial part of curriculum instruction. On the one side are those who argue in favor of such a practice for theoretical, logical and social reasons (Chavez, 1984; Cummins, 1981). On the other side are those who argue against it, largely on ideological and economic grounds (Bethel, 1979; Edwards, 1981). The debate has been longstanding and far-reaching, drawing in academics, researchers, public policy makers, government officials, media editorialists and even "the common man and woman in the street". It is far from being resolved. At the same time, there would appear to be a general consensus concerning the other side of the bilingual education coin; that is to say, the English side. Even the most ardent supporters of native language instruction for ML students recognize the primary importance of English language proficiency for these students: "for minority language children in the United States, strong English proficiency in all domains is essential." (Chavez, 1984, p. 171). In this paper I will address the issue of teaching and learning English in bilingual education programs for ML students drawing on my experiences with Canadian immersion programs

Bilingual First Language Acquisition: Evidence from Montreal

Bilingual code-mixing is the use of elements (phonological, lexical, and morpho-syntactic) from two languages in the same utterance or stretch of conversation or in different situations. Bilingual code-mixing is ubiquitous among bilinguals, both child and adult. Child bilingual code-mixing has been interpreted by researchers and laypersons as an indication of linguistic confusion and incompetence. This article reviews a series of studies on French-English simultaneous bilinguals from Montreal that examined their code-mixing with respect to young bilingual children’s ability: to differentiate their developing languages, to control code-mixing in different communicative situations, to adjust their code-mixing in response to feedback from interlocutors, and to fill gaps in their developing language competence. Contrary those who view child code-mixing as evidence of confusion and incompetence, extant evidence indicates that it reflects linguistic and communicative competence even in very early stages of simultaneous bilingual acquisition.L’alternance de codes (ou « code-mixing ») chez les personnes bilingues est l’utilisation d’éléments (phonologiques, lexicaux et morpho-syntaxiques) provenant de deux langues dans le même énoncé, dans la même partie de conversation ou dans différentes situations. L’alternance de codes est un phénomène omniprésent chez les enfants et les adultes bilingues. Ce phénomène a été interprété par les chercheurs et la population générale comme une indication de confusion et d’incompétence linguistique chez les enfants bilingues. Cet article présente plusieurs études portant sur ce phénomène auprès d’enfants bilingues de Montréal ayant appris le français et l’anglais simultanément. Les aspects suivants furent examinés : leur capacité à différencier les langues qu’ils acquièrent, à changer de langue dans différentes situations de communication, à changer de langue pour répondre aux réactions des interlocuteurs ou pour compenser les limites de leurs habiletés langagières en développement. Contrairement à la pensée voulant que l’alternance de codes soit une preuve de confusion et d’incompétence, plusieurs preuves suggèrent que ce phénomène reflète plutôt des compétences linguistiques et de communication, et ce, même dans les étapes très précoces de l’acquisition simultanée de deux langues

Phonological Development in the Early Speech of an Indonesian-German Bilingual Child

Current research in bilingual children’s language development with one language dominant has shown that one linguistic system can affect the other. This is called Crosslinguistic Influence (CLI). This paper explores whether CLI is experienced by a bilingual child raised in two typologically distinct languages in terms of phonological development. It uses data from the study of a child simultaneously acquiring Indonesian and German between the ages of 12 months - 20 months, with Indonesian as the dominant language. The sound segments developed by the child showed universal tendencies, with the appearance of bilabials prior to alveolar sounds, followed by velar sounds. The sounds were produced mostly in the form of stops, nasals and glides. Three phonological processes were displayed by the child: substitution, assimilation and syllable structures. The front rounded vowel [ʏ], which exists in German but not in the Indonesian sound system, was systematically replaced by the palatal approximant [j]. This approximant exists in the Indonesian sound system but not in the German phonemic inventory. This provides evidence that, in terms of phonological development, the child experienced CLI, but only for certain sound transfers

Toward a model of multiple paths to language learning: response to commentaries

Language learning, while seemingly effortless for young learners, is a complex process involving many interacting pieces, both within the child and in their language-learning environments, which can result in unique language learning trajectories and outcomes. How does the brain adjust to or accommodate the myriad variations that occur during this developmental process. How does it adapt and change over time? In our review, we proposed that the timing, quantity, and quality of children's early language experiences, particularly during an early sensitive period for the acquisition of phonology, shape the establishment of neural phonological representations that are used to establish and support phonological working memory (PWM). The efficiency of the PWM system in turn, we argued, influences the acquisition and processing of more complex aspects of language. In brief, we proposed that experience modulates later language outcomes through its early effects on PWM. We supported this claim by reviewing research from several unique groups of language learners who experience delayed exposure to language (children with cochlear implants [CI] or internationally adopted [IA] children, and children with either impoverished [signing deaf children with hearing parents)] or enriched [bilingual] early language experiences). By comparing PWM and language outcomes in these groups, we sought to highlight general patterns in language development that emerge based on variation in early language exposure. Moving forward, we also proposed that the language acquisition patterns in these groups, and others, can be used to understand how variability in early language input might affect the neural systems supporting language development and how this might affect language learning itself

Bilingualism and conversational understanding in young children

The purpose of the two experiments reported here was to investigate whether bilingualism confers an advantage on children’s conversational understanding. A total of 163 children aged 3 to 6 years were given a Conversational Violations Test to determine their ability to identify responses to questions as violations of Gricean maxims of conversation (to be informative and avoid redundancy, speak the truth, and be relevant and polite). Though comparatively delayed in their L2 vocabulary, children who were bilingual in Italian and Slovenian (with Slovenian as the dominant language) generally outperformed those who were either monolingual in Italian or Slovenian. We suggest that bilingualism can be accompanied by an enhanced ability to appreciate effective communicative responses

Variations in phonological working memory: linking early language experiences and language learning outcomes

In order to build complex language from perceptual input, children must have access to a powerful information processing system that can analyze, store, and use regularities in the signal to which the child is exposed. In this article, we propose that one of the most important parts of this underlying machinery is the linked set of cognitive and language processing components that comprise the child's developing working memory (WM). To examine this hypothesis, we explore how variations in the timing, quality, and quantity of language input during the earliest stages of development are related to variations in WM, especially phonological WM (PWM), and in turn language learning outcomes. In order to tease apart the relationships between early language experience, WM, and language development, we review research findings from studies of groups of language learners who clearly differ with respect to these aspects of input. Specifically, we consider the development of PWM in children with delayed exposure to language, that is, children born profoundly deaf and exposed to oral language following cochlear implantation and internationally adopted children who have delayed exposed to the adoption language; children who experience impoverished language input, that is, children who experience early bouts of otitis media and signing deaf children born to nonsigning hearing parents; and children with enriched early language input, that is, simultaneous bilinguals and second language learners

The acquisition of dative alternation by German-English bilingual and English monolingual children

The vulnerability of the syntax–semantics interface in simultaneous bilingual first language acquisition is still up for debate; while some scholars have found crosslinguistic transfer at this interface, others found no such influence. To determine which kinds of syntax–semantics interface phenomena may be vulnerable, this study examines the acquisition and use of dative alternation by German-English bilingual children and adults compared with English monolingual children and German and English monolingual adults. The study shows that bilingual children interpret and comprehend dative constructions in English like their monolingual peers but their production of dative constructions in German is influenced by English. This suggests that syntax–semantics interface phenomena relating to the representation of verbs’ objects are vulnerable to influence. However, bilingual adults perform like monolinguals in both languages. These results suggest that any indeterminacy in the use of dative alternation in the adult state is due to L1 attrition rather than incomplete L1 acquisition

Attitudes towards code-switching among adult mono- and multilingual language users

The present study investigates inter-individual variation (linked to personality traits, multilingualism and sociobiographical variables) in attitudes towards code-switching (CS) among 2070 multilinguals. Data were collected through an on-line questionnaire. We found that high levels of Tolerance of Ambiguity and Cognitive Empathy, and low levels of Neuroticism are linked with significantly more positive attitudes towards CS. Knowing many languages had a marginally positive effect. A more fine-grained analysis revealed that participants with mid-range global proficiency values were less positive towards CS than those at the lower and higher end of the scale. Participants who grew up in a bilingual family and in an ethnically diverse environment, and currently worked in an ethnically diverse environment had significantly more positive attitudes towards CS. Female participants and those with the lowest and highest levels of education appreciated CS most, and participants in their teens and twenties appreciated CS less than older participants. The findings thus show that the attitudes towards CS are linked to personality, language learning history and current linguistic practices, as well as some sociobiographical variables

Inventory for The Genesee Hospital

Inventory for the archival record groups of The Genesee Hospital, The Genesee Hospital School of Nursing, Rochester Regional Health/The Genesee Hospital School of Nursing Alumnae Association, and The Genesee Hospital Foundation