Subjects and actors

Published online: 15 March 2024States and international organisations are by tradition the main legal subjects of international law. In addition, a number of actors can also be identified that display limited features of international legal personality. In recent decades an acknowledgment has grown ever stronger that a range of actors in addition to States and international organisations can perform various regulatory functions. This pluralisation of the conception of international legal actors blurs the conventional distinction between subjects and objects of international law. This chapter in a first step introduces the concepts of legal personality and legal subjectivity to then discuss in more depth a number of actors in international law. These include the traditional as well as more recent or possibly emerging subjects of international law. In addition, the chapter will touch upon actors which even though not possessing formal legal personality play a role in making, interpreting, and enforcing international law

Application of non-HDL cholesterol for population-based cardiovascular risk stratification: results from the Multinational Cardiovascular Risk Consortium.

BACKGROUND: The relevance of blood lipid concentrations to long-term incidence of cardiovascular disease and the relevance of lipid-lowering therapy for cardiovascular disease outcomes is unclear. We investigated the cardiovascular disease risk associated with the full spectrum of bloodstream non-HDL cholesterol concentrations. We also created an easy-to-use tool to estimate the long-term probabilities for a cardiovascular disease event associated with non-HDL cholesterol and modelled its risk reduction by lipid-lowering treatment. METHODS: In this risk-evaluation and risk-modelling study, we used Multinational Cardiovascular Risk Consortium data from 19 countries across Europe, Australia, and North America. Individuals without prevalent cardiovascular disease at baseline and with robust available data on cardiovascular disease outcomes were included. The primary composite endpoint of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease was defined as the occurrence of the coronary heart disease event or ischaemic stroke. Sex-specific multivariable analyses were computed using non-HDL cholesterol categories according to the European guideline thresholds, adjusted for age, sex, cohort, and classical modifiable cardiovascular risk factors. In a derivation and validation design, we created a tool to estimate the probabilities of a cardiovascular disease event by the age of 75 years, dependent on age, sex, and risk factors, and the associated modelled risk reduction, assuming a 50% reduction of non-HDL cholesterol. FINDINGS: Of the 524 444 individuals in the 44 cohorts in the Consortium database, we identified 398 846 individuals belonging to 38 cohorts (184 055 [48·7%] women; median age 51·0 years [IQR 40·7-59·7]). 199 415 individuals were included in the derivation cohort (91 786 [48·4%] women) and 199 431 (92 269 [49·1%] women) in the validation cohort. During a maximum follow-up of 43·6 years (median 13·5 years, IQR 7·0-20·1), 54 542 cardiovascular endpoints occurred. Incidence curve analyses showed progressively higher 30-year cardiovascular disease event-rates for increasing non-HDL cholesterol categories (from 7·7% for non-HDL cholesterol <2·6 mmol/L to 33·7% for ≥5·7 mmol/L in women and from 12·8% to 43·6% in men; p<0·0001). Multivariable adjusted Cox models with non-HDL cholesterol lower than 2·6 mmol/L as reference showed an increase in the association between non-HDL cholesterol concentration and cardiovascular disease for both sexes (from hazard ratio 1·1, 95% CI 1·0-1·3 for non-HDL cholesterol 2·6 to <3·7 mmol/L to 1·9, 1·6-2·2 for ≥5·7 mmol/L in women and from 1·1, 1·0-1·3 to 2·3, 2·0-2·5 in men). The derived tool allowed the estimation of cardiovascular disease event probabilities specific for non-HDL cholesterol with high comparability between the derivation and validation cohorts as reflected by smooth calibration curves analyses and a root mean square error lower than 1% for the estimated probabilities of cardiovascular disease. A 50% reduction of non-HDL cholesterol concentrations was associated with reduced risk of a cardiovascular disease event by the age of 75 years, and this risk reduction was greater the earlier cholesterol concentrations were reduced. INTERPRETATION: Non-HDL cholesterol concentrations in blood are strongly associated with long-term risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. We provide a simple tool for individual long-term risk assessment and the potential benefit of early lipid-lowering intervention. These data could be useful for physician-patient communication about primary prevention strategies. FUNDING: EU Framework Programme, UK Medical Research Council, and German Centre for Cardiovascular Research

In Vitro Effect of Porphyromonas gingivalis Methionine Gamma Lyase on Biofilm Composition and Oral Inflammatory Response

Methanethiol (methyl mercaptan) is an important contributor to oral malodour and periodontal tissue destruction. Porphyromonas gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia and Fusobacterium nucleatum are key oral microbial species that produce methanethiol via methionine gamma lyase (mgl) activity. The aim of this study was to compare an mgl knockout strain of P. gingivalis with its wild type using a 10-species biofilm co-culture model with oral keratinocytes and its effect on biofilm composition and inflammatory cytokine production. A P. gingivalis mgl knockout strain was constructed using insertion mutagenesis from wild type W50 with gas chromatographic head space analysis confirming lack of methanethiol production. 10-species biofilms consisting of Streptococcus mitis, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus intermedius, Fusobacterium nucleatum ssp polymorphum, Fusobacterium nucleatum ssp vincentii, Veillonella dispar, Actinomyces naeslundii, Prevotella intermedia and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans with either the wild type or mutant P. gingivalis were grown on Thermanox cover slips and used to stimulate oral keratinocytes (OKF6-TERT2), under anaerobic conditions for 4 and 24 hours. Biofilms were analysed by quantitative PCR with SYBR Green for changes in microbial ecology. Keratinocyte culture supernatants were analysed using a multiplex bead immunoassay for cytokines. Significant population differences were observed between mutant and wild type biofilms; V. dispar proportions increased (p&lt;0.001), whilst A. naeslundii (p&lt;0.01) and Streptococcus spp. (p&lt;0.05) decreased in mutant biofilms. Keratinocytes produced less IL-8, IL-6 and IL-1α when stimulated with the mutant biofilms compared to wild type. Lack of mgl in P. gingivalis has been shown to affect microbial ecology in vitro, giving rise to a markedly different biofilm composition, with a more pro-inflammatory cytokine response from the keratinocytes observed. A possible role for methanethiol in biofilm formation and cytokine response with subsequent effects on oral malodor and periodontitis is suggested

Hydrodynamic Modelling for a Point Absorbing Wave Energy Converter

Surface gravity waves in the world’s oceans contain a renewable source of free power on the order of terawatts that has to this date not been commercially utilized. The division of Electricity at Uppsala University is developing a technology to harvest this energy. The technology is a point absorber type wave energy converter based on a direct-driven linear generator placed on the sea bed connected via a line to a buoy on the surface. The work in this thesis is focused mainly on the energy transport of ocean waves and on increasing the transfer of energy from the waves to the generator and load. Potential linear wave theory is used to describe the ocean waves and to derive the hydrodynamic forces that are exerted on the buoy. Expressions for the energy transport in polychromatic waves travelling over waters of finite depth are derived and extracted from measured time series of wave elevation collected at the Lysekil test site. The results are compared to existing solutions that uses the simpler deep water approximation. A Two-Body system wave energy converter model tuned to resonance in Swedish west coast sea states is developed based on the Lysekil project concept. The first indicative results are derived by using a linear resistive load. The concept is further extended by a coupled hydrodynamic and electromagnetic model with two more realistic non-linear load conditions. Results show that the use of the deep water approximation gives a too low energy transport in the time averaged as well as in the total instantaneous energy transport. Around the resonance frequency, a Two-Body System gives a power capture ratio of up to 80 percent. For more energetic sea states the power capture ratio decreases rapidly, indicating a smoother power output. The currents in the generator when using the Two-Body system is shown to be more evenly distributed compared to the conventional system, indicating a better utilization of the electrical equipment. Although the resonant nature of the system makes it sensitive to the shape of the wave spectrum, results indicate a threefold increase in annual power production compared to the conventional system

En jämförelse mellan Eurocodes och BKR

Between the year 2008 and 2011 a new code of pracitce for construction of buildings will replace our present code. This new code is called Eurocodes and consists of ten different parts. In this degree thesis the different calculationmodels in Eurocodes and in our Swedish code of practice, BKR, is presented and compared. The fields included are Loads and combination of loads, Classes of safety and Concrete-/Steelstructures. The main purpose with this degree thesis is to investigate if there are any differences in the safetylevel between the codes. In order to do this, results from loadcalculations and calculations of materialcharaceristics have been compared. It can be stated that the safetyaspects is treated differently in the two codes. BKR gives the opportunity to adapt the safetylevel according to the buildings usage, which gives a more exact and costefficient system. At the same time calculations according to Eurocodes gives rougher dimensions and because of this a higher safetylevel.Mellan år 2008 och 2011 kommer ett nytt regelverk för dimensionering av bärande konstruktioner i byggnader ersätta vårat nuvarande. Detta heter Eurocodes och består av tio olika delar. I detta examensarbete presenteras och jämförs de olika beräkningsmodeller som finns i Eurocodes och vårat svenska regelverk, BKR. De områden som berörs är Laster och lastkombinationer, Säkerhetsklasser och Betong-/Stålkonstruktioner. Det huvudsakliga syftet med examensarbetet är att klargöra eventuella skillnader i säkerhetsnivån mellan de olika normsystemen. För att kunna göra detta har resultat av beräkning av laster och materialegenskaper jämförts. Man kan konstatera att säkerhetsaspekten behandlas på olika sätt i de olika normerna. BKR ger möjligheten att anpassa säkerhetsnivån efter byggnadens användningsområde, vilket ger ett mera exakt och kostnadseffektivt system. Samtidigt ger beräkning med Eurocodes grövre dimensioner och med detta en högre säkerhetsnivå

En jämförelse mellan Eurocodes och BKR

Between the year 2008 and 2011 a new code of pracitce for construction of buildings will replace our present code. This new code is called Eurocodes and consists of ten different parts. In this degree thesis the different calculationmodels in Eurocodes and in our Swedish code of practice, BKR, is presented and compared. The fields included are Loads and combination of loads, Classes of safety and Concrete-/Steelstructures. The main purpose with this degree thesis is to investigate if there are any differences in the safetylevel between the codes. In order to do this, results from loadcalculations and calculations of materialcharaceristics have been compared. It can be stated that the safetyaspects is treated differently in the two codes. BKR gives the opportunity to adapt the safetylevel according to the buildings usage, which gives a more exact and costefficient system. At the same time calculations according to Eurocodes gives rougher dimensions and because of this a higher safetylevel.Mellan år 2008 och 2011 kommer ett nytt regelverk för dimensionering av bärande konstruktioner i byggnader ersätta vårat nuvarande. Detta heter Eurocodes och består av tio olika delar. I detta examensarbete presenteras och jämförs de olika beräkningsmodeller som finns i Eurocodes och vårat svenska regelverk, BKR. De områden som berörs är Laster och lastkombinationer, Säkerhetsklasser och Betong-/Stålkonstruktioner. Det huvudsakliga syftet med examensarbetet är att klargöra eventuella skillnader i säkerhetsnivån mellan de olika normsystemen. För att kunna göra detta har resultat av beräkning av laster och materialegenskaper jämförts. Man kan konstatera att säkerhetsaspekten behandlas på olika sätt i de olika normerna. BKR ger möjligheten att anpassa säkerhetsnivån efter byggnadens användningsområde, vilket ger ett mera exakt och kostnadseffektivt system. Samtidigt ger beräkning med Eurocodes grövre dimensioner och med detta en högre säkerhetsnivå