Global trends in infectious diseases at the wildlife–livestock interface

The role and significance of wildlife–livestock interfaces in disease ecology has largely been neglected, despite recent interest in animals as origins of emerging diseases in humans. Scoping review methods were applied to objectively assess the relative interest by the scientific community in infectious diseases at interfaces between wildlife and livestock, to characterize animal species and regions involved, as well as to identify trends over time. An extensive literature search combining wildlife, livestock, disease, and geographical search terms yielded 78,861 publications, of which 15,998 were included in the analysis. Publications dated from 1912 to 2013 and showed a continuous increasing trend, including a shift from parasitic to viral diseases over time. In particular there was a significant increase in publications on the artiodactyls–cattle and bird–poultry interface after 2002 and 2003, respectively. These trends could be traced to key disease events that stimulated public interest and research funding. Among the top 10 diseases identified by this review, the majority were zoonoses. Prominent wildlife–livestock interfaces resulted largely from interaction between phylogenetically closely related and/or sympatric species. The bird–poultry interface was the most frequently cited wildlife–livestock interface worldwide with other interfaces reflecting regional circumstances. This review provides the most comprehensive overview of research on infectious diseases at the wildlife–livestock interface to date

A qualitative assessment of the risk of foot and mouth disease outbreaks outside the western boundary of Kruger National Park

Since the year 2000 at least five declared outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (FMD) have occurred in the area adjacent to the Kruger National Park (KNP) despite the implementation of control measures. Although only one of these butbreaks threatened the free zone, it is necessary to develop decision tools in order to help in the implementation of efficient disease control strategies. To address this issue, a qualitative risk assessment was performed to evaluate the risk of FMD outbreaks of KNP origin occurring across the park's Western Boundary. The OIE assessment method was used based on data collected during a three month period between February and May 2007 and expert opinion. Although the data were not sufficient to allow a quantitative risk assessment to be performed, the investigation served as a useful initial approach prior to undertaking a quantitative risk assessment. Risk was assessed using the following parameters: prevalence of infection in buffalo in the KNP, permeability of the fence along its Western Boundary, the potential for contacts between livestock and buffalo. the level of immunity in cattle herds and the efficiency of surveillance measures. The magnitude of the consequences is derived from the probability of transmission and spread. The method and results are presented to serve as a basis for further discussion and for the development of a quantitative risk assessment model. (Résumé d'auteur

A qualitative risk assessment of factors contributing to foot and mouth disease outbreaks in cattle along the western boundary of the Kruger National Park

Between November 2000 and the end of 2007, five outbreaks of foot and mouth disease (FMD) occurred in cattle in the area adjacent to the Kruger National Park (KNP) in the north-eastern corner of South Africa. To help understand the factors behind these outbreaks a qualitative risk assessment based on the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) assessment framework was adopted, using available data from published sources and various unpublished South African sources. Risk was assessed on the basis of the following factors: data on South African Territories (SAT) type infections of buffalo and impala in the KNP, permeability of the fence along the western boundary of the KNP, the potential for contact between livestock and wildlife susceptible to FMD in areas adjacent to the KNP, and the level of herd immunity in cattle generated by prophylactic vaccination. Scenario pathways for FMD occurrence outside the KNP are presented as a conceptual framework to qualitatively assess the risk of FMD outbreaks. Factors that are likely to have most influence on the risk were identified: fence permeability, vaccination coverage, or the efficiency of animal movement control measures. The method and results are provided as an approach that may be used as a basis to evaluate the risk of FMD outbreaks occurring in other wildlife/livestock interface areas of southern Africa. (Résumé d'auteur

Evaluating the potential for the environmentally sustainable control of foot and mouth disease in Sub-Saharan Africa

Strategies to control transboundary diseases have in the past generated unintended negative consequences for both the environment and local human populations. Integrating perspectives from across disciplines, including livestock, veterinary and conservation sectors, is necessary for identifying disease control strategies that optimise environmental goods and services at the wildlife-livestock interface. Prompted by the recent development of a global strategy for the control and elimination of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), this paper seeks insight into the consequences of, and rational options for potential FMD control measures in relation to environmental, conservation and human poverty considerations in Africa. We suggest a more environmentally nuanced process of FMD control that safe-guards the integrity of wild populations and the ecosystem dynamics on which human livelihoods depend while simultaneously improving socio-economic conditions of rural people. In particular, we outline five major issues that need to be considered: 1) improved understanding of the different FMD viral strains and how they circulate between domestic and wildlife populations; 2) an appreciation for the economic value of wildlife for many African countries whose presence might preclude the country from ever achieving an FMD-free status; 3) exploring ways in which livestock production can be improved without compromising wildlife such as implementing commodity-based trading schemes; 4) introducing a participatory approach involving local farmers and the national veterinary services in the control of FMD; and 5) finally the possibility that transfrontier conservation might offer new hope of integrating decision-making at the wildlife-livestock interface

Elephant population control in African National Parks

Reviews the reasons behind the need to control elephant populations - land use conflict, restricted range etc. Outlines the ways in which the usual culling programmes were and are still carried out and then notes the alternative method of controlling the population in a specific area, translocation. This latter method at best can only be considered a short term alternative to a constantly rising population

Exploring local knowledge and perceptions on zoonoses among pastoralists in northern and eastern Tanzania

Background: Zoonoses account for the most commonly reported emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, there is limited knowledge on how pastoral communities perceive zoonoses in relation to their livelihoods, culture and their wider ecology. This study was carried out to explore local knowledge and perceptions on zoonoses among pastoralists in Tanzania. Methodology and principal findings: This study involved pastoralists in Ngorongoro district in northern Tanzania and Kibaha and Bagamoyo districts in eastern Tanzania. Qualitative methods of focus group discussions, participatory epidemiology and interviews were used. A total of 223 people were involved in the study. Among the pastoralists, there was no specific term in their local language that describes zoonosis. Pastoralists from northern Tanzania possessed a higher understanding on the existence of a number of zoonoses than their eastern districts' counterparts. Understanding of zoonoses could be categorized into two broad groups: a local syndromic framework, whereby specific symptoms of a particular illness in humans concurred with symptoms in animals, and the biomedical framework, where a case definition is supported by diagnostic tests. Some pastoralists understand the possibility of some infections that could cross over to humans from animals but harm from these are generally tolerated and are not considered as threats. A number of social and cultural practices aimed at maintaining specific cultural functions including social cohesion and rites of passage involve animal products, which present zoonotic risk. Conclusions: These findings show how zoonoses are locally understood, and how epidemiology and biomedicine are shaping pastoralists perceptions to zoonoses. Evidence is needed to understand better the true burden and impact of zoonoses in these communities. More studies are needed that seek to clarify the common understanding of zoonoses that could be used to guide effective and locally relevant interventions. Such studies should consider in their approaches the pastoralists' wider social, cultural and economic set up

Nutritional status and weight making practices of professional male South African mixed martial arts fighters

MSc (Dietetics), North-West University, Potchefstroom CampusBackground - Weight category combat sport athletes, including mixed martial arts (MMA) fighters, often ‘make weight’ or ‘cut weight’ to fight in lower weight divisions. Common weight-making practices include restriction of food and/or fluid intake and intentional fluid loss/sweating (e.g. sauna). However, a number of these weight-making practices can be detrimental to the performance, health and nutritional status of the fighters. MMA fighters are usually weighed-in 24 hours prior to competition, and then have a subsequent 24 hours to adequately recover/rehydrate for the match (Jetton et al., 2013). Due to the fact that fighters have time to recover/rehydrate, it allows fighters to make use of extreme weight-making practices (i.e. extreme dehydration) to rapidly lose the last bit of unwanted body weight, usually being water weight, in a short time. Although literature is available on the weight making practices of MMA fighters, limited information is available regarding their general nutritional status. Since MMA is a rapidly growing sport with a lot of interest amongst youngsters as well, information on weight-making practices and the nutritional status of these athletes is warranted to enable coaches and allied health professionals to optimise their health and performance. This study therefore aimed to describe the nutritional status (dietary intake and body composition) and weight-making practices of professional male South African MMA fighters. Objectives - The first objective was to determine the nutritional status, including dietary intake and body composition, of professional male South African MMA fighters at baseline (6-weeks prior to competition), 1-week prior to competition and at weigh-in (24-hours prior to weigh-in). The second objective was to determine the weight-making practices of professional male South African MMA fighters prior to weigh-in. The final objective was to determine the hydration status at weigh-in (proxy for fluid loss / extent of fluid weight-making practices). Methods - Seventeen male South African MMA athletes (aged 28.0±1.0 years, and competitive experience 7.0±1.0 years) participated in this observational study with a descriptive longitudinal study design. Dietary intake was recorded by means of a validated quantified food frequency questionnaire at baseline (6-weeks prior to competition) and again 1-week prior to competition. Anthropometric measures (weight, height and skinfold measurements) were performed by an ISAK level 1 anthropometrist at baseline (6-weeks prior to competition), 1-week prior to competition, and at weigh-in (24-hours prior to weigh-in for weight). A previously validated weight-making practices questionnaire was adjusted and administered to the MMA athlete’s 1-week prior to competition. Urine samples were collected at weigh-in, and hydration status was determined with urine specific gravity using a digital hand-held compact refractometer (P10S). Main findings - Median dietary energy intake at baseline was 17170 (15598-26376) kJ. Macronutrient intake for carbohydrate (CHO), protein and fat were 411 (291-632) g, 194(134-216) g, and 209 (161-305) g, respectively. Dietary protein intake (expressed in g/kg body mass) was in-line with the recommendations for athletes, however median CHO intake at baseline [5.2 (3.2-11.7) g/kg] and 1-week prior to competition [3.1 (2.1-10.5) g/kg] was below the recommendations of 6-10g CHO/kg body mass for athletes performing one to three hours of moderate to high-intensity exercise. Fat intake (expressed in percentage) at baseline [44.0 (32.3-61.5)%] and 1-week prior to competition [40.9 (32.8-47.2)%] were above the recommended macronutrient distribution range (>35% of total energy), however athletes that do regular high-volume training may increase their fat intake up to 50% of total energy intake. Vitamin D intake at baseline [8(1-22) μg/d] and1-week prior to completion [5(0-9) μg/d] were both below the RDA of 15 μg/d. Calcium intake 1-week prior to competition [826 (522-1120) mg/d] was below the RDA of 1000mg/d. Magnesium at baseline [26 (21-334) mg/d] was below the RDA of 400 mg/d. The median body mass index (BMI) of the participants at baseline was classified as overweight (>24.9kg/m2), however, their median body fat percentage was low [7.6 (6.5-8.5) %]. All (100%) of the fighters reported the use of one or more weight-making practice to make weight before competition. Gradual weight loss was the most common weight-making practice reported in this study, with a prevalence of 88%, followed by hot baths (82%), water loading (71%), increasing exercise more than usual (59%) and training in rubber or plastic suits (59%). Seventy one percent (71%) of the MMA fighters restricted fluid intake in order to lose weight. Although body mass decreased significantly from baseline [80.4 (73.3-86.5) kg] to 1-week prior to weigh-in [76.9 (71.8- 81.2) kg], with an additional significant decrease to weigh-in 24-hours prior to competition [70.4 (66.8- 106.6) kg], body fat percentage did not change between baseline and pre-competition. At weigh-in 24-hours prior to competition, all of the participants that provided a voluntary urine sample were classified as moderately (57%) to severely (43%) dehydrated. Conclusion - The MMA fighters in the present study had a borderline high BMI but a healthy body fat percentage. Their dietary intake was in line with the macronutrient recommendations for athletes for protein, fat and the majority of micronutrients, however, CHO intake as well as vitamin D and calcium were below the recommended amounts. It is clear that MMA fighters in the present study are engaging in weight-making practices, particularly rapid weight loss practices that involve fluid loss and/or fluid restriction and that their influence on how to make weight mainly from their coaches and training colleagues, and not from a registered dietitian.. Although the MMA fighters lost a significant amount of weight from baseline to 1-week prior to weigh-in, they continued losing weight during the few days leading up to weigh-in 24-hours prior to competition. Based on the fact that all the MMA fighters who provided a urine sample at weigh-in were moderately to severely dehydrated, the weight lost during the few days prior to weigh-in was presumably water weight as a result of rapid weight loss practices. It should be recommended that the rule changes made by the California State Athletic Commission (CSAC) for Ultimate Fighting Championships (American based) that only allow a maximum of 8% weight difference between a week prior to weigh-in and weigh-in, should be implemented in Extreme Fighting Championships (in South Africa) as well to encourage fighters to enter realistic weight categories and limit the use of extreme weight making practices resulting in dehydration prior to weigh-in.Master

Molecular detection of tick-borne pathogen diversities in ticks from livestock and reptiles along the shores and adjacent islands of lake Victoria and lake Baringo, Kenya

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) are responsible for some of the most serious emerging infectious diseases facing sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and the rest of the world today (1, 2). In Kenya, TBPs (including viral diseases—arboviruses) like Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF), Dugbe, Kupe, and Hazara, as well as hemoparasites that cause babesiosis, theileriosis, and rickettsiosis, are major impediments to livestock productivity and public health

Facultative predation and scavenging by mammalian carnivores: seasonal, regional and intra-guild comparisons

The extent to which vertebrate carnivores shift facultatively between predation and scavenging has recently been emphasized. Potentially, all carnivores have to do is wait until animals succumb to the debilitating effects of advancing age. However, this may be insufficient because of intense competition among other scavengers and decomposers for food. Moreover, the availability of carcasses of animals dying from causes other than predation varies seasonally, so carnivores must be adapted to exploit various sources of food through the seasonal cycle. We explore how mammalian carnivores cope with seasonality in carrion supply and in prey vulnerability to predation. We focus mainly on large carnivores and ungulates, and compare especially ecological communities in northern temperate and African savanna ecosystems. When carrion is scarce, carnivores can (i) take advantage of temporarily vulnerable segments of prey populations, such as newborn young, heavily pregnant females and males distracted or debilitated by reproduction, (ii) switch to carcass remains left by or stolen from other carnivores, or (iii) exploit small animals and non‐animal food sources. Relationships between carnivores tending towards predation or scavenging can be both competitive and facilitative. Top carnivores may provide a supply of carcasses throughout the year, which subsidizes scavengers when carrion availability from other sources is low. Alterations of seasonal patterns due to anthropogenic environmental change may enhance the role of top carnivores as buffers of anthropogenic perturbations of natural processes. Megaherbivores, which are not normally regarded as prey but can provide huge carrion subsidies, may strongly influence interspecific interactions between carnivores and the proportion of food flowing towards scavenging relative to predation. Relationships among carnivores based on hunting vs. scavenging strategies are flexible and subject to changes in response to circumstances. Their functional complexity is relevant for assessing the effects of global change on ecosystem function

The African buffalo : a villain for inter-species spread of infectious diseases in southern Africa

The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is a large wild bovid which until recently ranged across all but the driest parts of sub-Saharan Africa, and their local range being limited to about 20 km from surface water. They are of high ecological value due to their important role as bulk feeders in the grazing hierarchy. They also have high economic value, because they are one of the sought after ‘Big Five’ in the eco-tourism industry. In Africa, buffaloes have been recognised for some time as an important role player in the maintenance and transmission of a variety of economically important livestock diseases at the wildlife and/or livestock interface. These include African strains of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), Corridor disease (theileriosis), bovine tuberculosis and bovine brucellosis. For a number of other diseases of veterinary importance, African buffaloes may also serve as amplifier or incidental host, whereby infection with the causative pathogens may cause severe clinical signs such as death or abortion as in the case of anthrax and Rift Valley fever, or remain mild or subclinical for example heartwater. The long term health implications of most of those infections on the buffalo at a population level is usually limited, and they do not pose a threat on the population’s survival. Because of their ability to harbour and transmit important diseases to livestock, their sustainable future in ecotourism, trade and transfrontier conservation projects become complex and costly and reliable diagnostic tools are required to monitor these infections in buffalo populations.Proceedings of the Conference of the Southern African Centre for Infectious Disease Surveillance ‘One Health’ held at the National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, July 2011.http://www.ojvr.orgab201