What is Truth?: True Suspects and False Defamation

A television station reports that an individual is a suspect in a murder case. A newspaper reports that a business or charity is under investigation to determine whether it has provided funding to terrorists or terrorist organizations. It is true that the individual is a suspect in the police investigation of the murder, and that the government is investigating the business or charity for possible financial links to terrorists. However, the suspicion is wrong, or at least unprovable. As far as can be determined from the available evidence, the individual did not commit a murder, and the business or charity did not provide funds to terrorists. If the party identified as a suspect or investigation target brings a defamation action, the defendant will assert that the report it made to the public was true and truth is a complete defense to a defamation claim. The plaintiff, however, will assert that the report damaged the plaintiff’s reputation by causing the public to suspect the plaintiff of criminal or improper acts and the suspicion was false, so the defense of truth should not succeed. Which version of “truth” will prevail in these circumstances? What must be true for the defendant to avoid liability? This is the question that this article examines and attempts to answer. The answer will determine whether an innocent person can obtain some remedy for harm to reputation or whether the media will enjoy what amounts to an absolute immunity from liability when the published report is literally accurate in identifying a person as a suspect or under investigation. American courts have not developed a satisfactory or authoritative answer to the question of what is “truth” in this situation. This article will put forward answers that are well-grounded in defamation common law and constitutional law and strike a reasonable balance between allowing the media freedom to report on criminal investigations and providing a remedy to innocent parties whose reputation has been damaged

The Prosser Myth of Transferred Intent

The main theme of this Article is that Prosser advanced a mythical doctrine of transferred intent. What Prosser asserted to be the law was not the law when he wrote his article on transferred intent and amended his treatise. The cases he relied on to support his conclusions on transferred intent did not support them. Moreover, despite Prosser’s great influence on American tort law, Prosser’s position on transferred intent is not the law now and should not be. Its consequences are undesirable. Recognition of transferred intent as a basis of liability is due primarily to its inclusion in the First and Second Restatements of Torts. Transferred intent does not and should not extend beyond the Restatements’ rules

What is Truth?: True Suspects and False Defamation

A television station reports that an individual is a suspect in a murder case. A newspaper reports that a business or charity is under investigation to determine whether it has provided funding to terrorists or terrorist organizations. It is true that the individual is a suspect in the police investigation of the murder, and that the government is investigating the business or charity for possible financial links to terrorists. However, the suspicion is wrong, or at least unprovable. As far as can be determined from the available evidence, the individual did not commit a murder, and the business or charity did not provide funds to terrorists. If the party identified as a suspect or investigation target brings a defamation action, the defendant will assert that the report it made to the public was true and truth is a complete defense to a defamation claim. The plaintiff, however, will assert that the report damaged the plaintiff’s reputation by causing the public to suspect the plaintiff of criminal or improper acts and the suspicion was false, so the defense of truth should not succeed. Which version of “truth” will prevail in these circumstances? What must be true for the defendant to avoid liability? This is the question that this article examines and attempts to answer. The answer will determine whether an innocent person can obtain some remedy for harm to reputation or whether the media will enjoy what amounts to an absolute immunity from liability when the published report is literally accurate in identifying a person as a suspect or under investigation. American courts have not developed a satisfactory or authoritative answer to the question of what is “truth” in this situation. This article will put forward answers that are well-grounded in defamation common law and constitutional law and strike a reasonable balance between allowing the media freedom to report on criminal investigations and providing a remedy to innocent parties whose reputation has been damaged

The Prosser Myth of Transferred Intent

The main theme of this Article is that Prosser advanced a mythical doctrine of transferred intent. What Prosser asserted to be the law was not the law when he wrote his article on transferred intent and amended his treatise. The cases he relied on to support his conclusions on transferred intent did not support them. Moreover, despite Prosser’s great influence on American tort law, Prosser’s position on transferred intent is not the law now and should not be. Its consequences are undesirable. Recognition of transferred intent as a basis of liability is due primarily to its inclusion in the First and Second Restatements of Torts. Transferred intent does not and should not extend beyond the Restatements’ rules

Plankton studies in a mangrove environment III: bacteriological analysis of waters in Cananéia

Waters of the mangrove swamp at Cananeia were analysed bacteriologically aiming the determination of the degree of bacterial contamination. Aerobic counts varied significantly by season, tide and station with the highest of 13,000 and the lowest of 21/ml while coliform counts showed significant variation only by station with the highest of 1,600 and the lowest of 3 per ml. Pseudomonas-Achromobacter group comprised the highest percentage of the total flora at the level of around 60%. The biochemical characteristic of the strains of this group are more saccharolytic than proteolytic, certainly due to the great number of diatoms present.As águas da região do mangue de Cananéia foram analisadas bacteriológicamente, com o objetivo de estabelecer seu grau de contaminação. As contagens aeróbicas variaram significativamente nas várias épocas, locais e marés, com um máximo de 13.000 bactérias/ml e um mínimo de 21/ml, ao passo que as contagens de coliformes mostraram variação significativa somente segundo os diversos locais com um máximo de 1.600 e um mínimo de 3/ml. O grupo Pseudomonas/Achromobacter abrangeu a mais alta percentagem da flora total com cerca de 60%. As características bioquímicas das linhagens deste grupo são mais sacarolíticas do que proteolíticas, certamente devido ao grande número de diatomáceas presentes

Plankton studies in a mangrove environment: I first assessment of standing stock and principal ecological factors

1 - The quantitative relation between net phytoplankton, nanoplankton and zooplankton during the high and low tide for five days at a fixed station is reported here. The samples were collected at surface, 2 and 4 m near the Baguassu river, a typical region of mangrove environment. 2 - Measurements were made of transparence, salinity, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, suspended matter and dry weight (inorganic + organic). Culture of bacteria was also carried out to determine the degree of contamination of the water. 3 - Total phytoplankton cell counts were lower during high tide showing a good inverse correlation to salinity. 4 - The total organic matter varied from 6.80 to 16.80 mg/l and the dry organic matter of net plankton varied from 0.084 to 3.64 mg/m³. These results are presumably due to a great portion of the particulate matter that may be originated from nanoplankton and fine detritus. 5 - The average of nanoplankton was 97% greater than net phytoplankton and the net phytoplankton was in average 99,7% greater than zooplankton.1 - Os autores fizeram um estudo sobre a variação quantitativa entre o "net" fitoplâncton, nanoplâncton e zooplâncton numa estação fixa junto à barra do Rio Baguassú, região que sofre forte influência do mangue. As amostras foram coletadas durante cinco dias sucessivos, na preamar e baixa-mar em três profundidades: superfície, 2 e 4 m. 2 - Foram levados em conta os seguintes fatores: transparência da água, salinidade, pH, temperatura, oxigênio dissolvido e peso do material seco (matéria orgânica + matéria inorgânica). Foram feitas culturas de bactérias para se determinar o grau de contaminação da região estudada. 3 - O fitoplâncton apresentou menor número de células durante a maré alta, mostrando uma correlação inversa com a salinidade. 4 - A quantidade de matéria orgânica total variou de 6,80 a 16,80 mg/l, ao passo que a quantidade de matéria orgânica do "net" plâncton mostrou uma variação de 0,084 a 3,64 mg/m³. Estes resultados são devidos ao fato de que uma grande parte da matéria em suspensão é originada do nanoplâncton e microdetritos. 5 - O número de indivíduos do nanoplâncton foi em média 97% maior do que o do "net" fitoplâncton. Este, por sua vez, apresentou um número 99,7% maior do que aquele do zooplâncton

Plankton studies in a mangrove environment II: the standing stock and some ecological factors

This work was undertaken to obtain information on seasonal variation of the plankton communities of the Cananéia mangrove system. The results provide a background for further investigations on primary and secondary productivity and the study of the interrelationships of ecological factors that affect the distribution and abundance of plankton. The correlation of data obtained shows that in the mangrove system under study there are different environments with distinct species.Durante 1962, em janeiro, abril, julho e outubro, foram feitas coletas em quatro estações oceanográficas, três na região lagunar de Cananéia e uma na região costeira. O objetivo foi o de efetuar um primeiro levantamento do bacterio, fito e zooplâncton, assim como estudar os fatores ecológicos atuantes nos diferentes locais, em diferentes épocas do ano. Amostras foram tomadas durante os períodos de maré alta e baixa, em superfície e profundidade, para determinação do plancton, material em suspensão, salinidade e oxigênio. Pelos resultados obtidos, verificou-se que o "standing stock" diminuiu gradualmente da estação I para a estação IV, mostrando uma correlação inversa com a salinidade. As condições extremamente variáveis da região lagunar constituem um fator seletivo para as diferentes espécies planctônicas. No fitoplâncton foram encontrados: Diatomáceas, Dinoflagelados, Silicoflagelados, Fitoflagelados e Cianofíceas. As Diatomáceas sempre predominaram, exceto na estação I, no mês de abril, quando apareceram os Fitoflagelados em proporções superiores. O máximo de organismos do fitoplâncton foi na estação I, em janeiro, havendo um decréscimo durante os meses de abril e julho e um novo aumento em outubro. O zooplâncton, constituído, predominantemente, por copépodos e estágios larvares, apresentou também Moluscos, Tintinoideos e em pequenas proporções Medusas, Chaetognatos e Cladoceros. O máximo de zooplâncton ocorreu em abril em todas as estações. A quantidade de matéria orgânica em suspensão, apresentou altos índices, nas estações lagunares em comparação com a costeira, isto devido a detritos levados pelos rios que circundam a região, ao plancton e à decomposição in situ da vegetação do mangue. Por outro lado, a matéria em suspensão, a concentração do plancton e as substâncias coloridas provenientes da vegetação do mangue, mostraram bastante influência sobre a transparência e coloração da água, diminuindo a extensão da camada eufótica

A SWOT analysis of health service access by men who have sex with men in South Africa: lessons for higher education institutions

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Algumas diatomáceas encontradas sôbre algas superiores

A list of diatoms found on the higher algae Centroceras sp., collected at Itanhaém, State of São Paulo, Brazil, and Ectocarpus sp. and Caulerpa racemosa from Ubatuba, also in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, is given in this paper. Only onq species Licmophora abbreviate Agardh is typically epiphitic. Nine different species and the genus Auricula, are here recorded for the first time for Brazil. A new species Navicula melchersi is described. The difference of the surrounding conditions, calm waters at Ubatuba and breakers at Itanhaém, probably accounts for the species composition of the communities from the two places