Lateral sediment sources and knickzones as controls on spatio-temporal variations of sediment transport in an Alpine river

Modern mixed alluvial-bedrock channels in mountainous areas provide natural laboratories for understanding the time scales at which coarse-grained material has been entrained and transported from their sources to the adjacent sedimentary sink, where these deposits are preserved as conglomerates. This article assesses the shear stress conditions needed for the entrainment of the coarse-bed particles in the Glogn River that drains the 400 km2 Val Lumnezia basin, eastern Swiss Alps. In addition, quantitative data are presented on sediment transport patterns in this stream. The longitudinal stream profile of this river is characterized by three ca 500 m long knickzones where channel gradients range from 0·02 to 0·2 m m−1, and where the valley bottom confined into a <10 m wide gorge. Downstream of these knickzones, the stream is flat with gradients <0·01 m m−1 and widths ≥30 m. Measurements of the grain-size distribution along the trunk stream yield a mean D84 value of ca 270 mm, whereas the mean D50 is ca 100 mm. The consequences of the channel morphology and the grain-size distribution for the time scales of sediment transport were explored by using a one-dimensional step-backwater hydraulic model (Hydrologic Engineering Centre – River Analysis System). The results reveal that, along the entire trunk stream, a two to 10 year return period flood event is capable of mobilizing both the D50 and D84 fractions where the Shields stress exceeds the critical Shields stress for the initiation of particle motion. These return periods, however, varied substantially depending on the channel geometry and the pebble/boulder size distribution of the supplied material. Accordingly, the stream exhibits a highly dynamic boulder cover behaviour. It is likely that these time scales might also have been at work when coarse-grained conglomerates were constructed in the geological past

Thermométrie Raman rotationnelle pour la caractérisation du flux d'air au sein d'un banc d'essai turbomachine

International audienceNon-invasive and accurate measurements are essential to study the reactive flows in aeronautical engines. This paper reports the results of a unique measurement campaign providing the temperature flowfield in a large scale facility turbomachine test rig using spontaneous rotational Raman scattering technique. Different planes of interest and operating conditions are probed, showing good agreement with thermocouple measurements. Fast temperature variations (>7.7 kHz) could be probed thanks to synchronization of the laser pulse with the rotor clock. Results outline the performance of in situ Raman technique to investigate steady and unsteady flows in turbine's conditions

Hyperconcentrated floods cause extreme gravel transport through the sandy rivers of the Gangetic Plains

The Gangetic Plains comprise steep gravelly river channels that transition to low gradient sandy channels 10-40 km downstream of the mountain front. This “gravel-sand transition" is characterized by an abrupt greater-than-one-order-of-magnitude drop in both gradient and sediment grain size, suggesting a degree of long-term stability. However, the stratigraphic record of the gravel-sand transition in the Miocene Siwalik Group demonstrates intermittent transport of coarse gravels tens of kilometres downstream of the transition; such events in contemporary channels would drive channel avulsion(s) and increase flood risk, devastating communities across the plains. We combine sedimentological analysis of Siwalik deposits with entrainment calculations which demonstrate that hyperconcentration is required to transport coarse bedload over low-gradient plains. Transport conditions are attainable when intense monsoon precipitation (a 200- to 1000-year event) is combined with increased suspended sediment concentrations in channels. Predicted climate change and ongoing seismicity increase the likelihood of such extreme events within this century

Erosion during extreme flood events dominates Holocene canyon evolution in northeast Iceland

Extreme flood events have the potential to cause catastrophic landscape change in short periods of time (10(0) to 10(3) h). However, their impacts are rarely considered in studies of long-term landscape evolution (>10(3) y), because the mechanisms of erosion during such floods are poorly constrained. Here we use topographic analysis and cosmogenic (3)He surface exposure dating of fluvially sculpted surfaces to determine the impact of extreme flood events within the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon (northeast Iceland) and to constrain the mechanisms of bedrock erosion during these events. Surface exposure ages allow identification of three periods of intense canyon cutting about 9 ka ago, 5 ka ago, and 2 ka ago during which multiple large knickpoints retreated large distances (>2 km). During these events, a threshold flow depth was exceeded, leading to the toppling and transportation of basalt lava columns. Despite continuing and comparatively large-scale (500 m(3)/s) discharge of sediment-rich glacial meltwater, there is no evidence for a transition to an abrasion-dominated erosion regime since the last erosive event because the vertical knickpoints have not diffused over time. We provide a model for the evolution of the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon through the reconstruction of the river profile and canyon morphology at different stages over the last 9 ka and highlight the dominant role played by extreme flood events in the shaping of this landscape during the Holocene

Pebble abrasion during fluvial transport: Experimental results and implications for the evolution of the sediment load along rivers

International audienceIn actively eroding landscapes, fluvial abrasion modifies the characteristics of the sediment carried by rivers and consequently has a direct impact on the ability of mountain rivers to erode their bedrock and on the characteristics and volume of the sediment exported from upland catchments. In this experimental study, we use a novel flume replicating hydrodynamic conditions prevailing in mountain rivers to investigate the role played by different controlling variables on pebble abrasion during fluvial transport. Lithology controls abrasion rates and processes, with differences in abrasion rates exceeding two orders of magnitude. Attrition as well as breaking and splitting are efficient processes in reducing particle size. Mass loss by attrition increases with particle velocity but is weakly dependent on particle size. Fragment production is enhanced by the use of large particles, high impact velocities and the presence of joints. Based on our experimental results, we extrapolate a preliminary generic relationship between pebble attrition rate and transport stage (τ*/τ*c), where τ* = fluvial Shields stress and τ*c = critical Shields stress for incipient pebble motion. This relationship predicts that attrition rates are independent of transport stage for (τ*/τ*c) ≤ 3 and increase linearly with transport stage beyond this value. We evaluate the extent to which abrasion rates control downstream fining in several different natural settings. A simplified model predicts that the most resistant lithologies control bed load flux and fining ratio and that the concavity of transport-limited river profiles should rarely exceed 0.25 in the absence of deposition and sorting

Constraining bedrock erosion during extreme flood events

The importance of high-magnitude, short-lived flood events in controlling the evolution of bedrock landscapes is not well understood. During such events, erosion processes can shift from one regime to another upon the passing of thresholds, resulting in abrupt landscape changes that can have a long lasting legacy on landscape morphology. Geomorphological mapping and topographic analysis document the evidence for, and impact of, extreme flood events within the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon (North-East Iceland). Surface exposure dating using cosmogenic 3He of fluvially sculpted bedrock surfaces determines the timing of the floods that eroded the canyon and helps constrain the mechanisms of bedrock erosion during these events. Once a threshold flow depth has been exceeded, the dominant erosion mechanism becomes the toppling and transportation of basalt lava columns and erosion occurs through the upstream migration of knickpoints. Surface exposure ages allow identification of three periods of rapid canyon cutting during erosive flood events about 9, 5 and 2 ka ago, when multiple active knickpoints retreated large distances (> 2 km), each leading to catastrophic landscape change within the canyon. A single flood event ~9 ka ago formed, and then abandoned, Ásbyrgi canyon, eroding 0.14 km3 of rock. Flood events ~5 and ~2 ka ago eroded the upper 5 km of the Jökulsárgljúfur canyon through the upstream migration of vertical knickpoints such as Selfoss, Dettifoss and Hafragilsfoss. Despite sustained high discharge of sediment-rich glacial meltwater (ranging from 100 to 500 m3 s-1); there is no evidence for a transition to an abrasion-dominated erosion regime since the last erosive flood: the vertical knickpoints have not diffused over time and there is no evidence of incision into the canyon floor. The erosive signature of the extreme events is maintained in this landscape due to the nature of the bedrock, the discharge of the river, large knickpoints and associated plunge pools. The influence of these controls on the dynamics of knickpoint migration and morphology are explored using an experimental study. The retreat rate of knickpoints is independent of both mean discharge, and temporal variability in the hydrograph. The dominant control on knickpoint retreat is the knickpoint form which is set by the ratio of channel flow depth to knickpoint height. Where the knickpoint height is five times greater than the flow depth, the knickpoints developed undercutting plunge pools, accelerating the removal of material from the knickpoint base and the overall retreat rate. Smaller knickpoints relative to the flow depth were more likely to diffuse from a vertical step into a steepened reach or completely as the knickpoint retreated up the channel. These experiments challenge the established assumption in models of landscape evolution that a simple relationship exists between knickpoint retreat and discharge/drainage area. In order to fully understand how bedrock channels, and thus landscapes, respond and recover to transient forcing, further detailed study of the mechanics of erosion processes at knickpoints is required

Erosion des galets des rivières de montagne au cours du transport fluvial : étude expérimentale et application aux réseaux hydrographiques d'orogènes actifs

Thèse soutenue devant le jury composé de : Philippe DAVY Président Philippe BELLEUDY Rapporteur Niels HOVIUS Rapporteur Jérôme LAVE Directeur de thèse Jean-Louis MUGNIER Directeur de thèseTerrestrial landscapes result from the competition between two opposing processes: tectonic uplift and erosion. At mountain range scale, rivers are the most important agents that shape the landscape: in response to uplift, they incise into bedrock and control the progressive lowering of base level for hillslope erosion, in particular by landslides. Moreover, they evacuate the erosional products of the range as dissolved, suspended and bed load. The latter interacts with river bedrock and controls the mode and rate of its incision. A thorough understanding and quantification of abrasion processes linked to pebble – bedrock interactions is therefore necessary to understand the evolution of mountainous landscapes. To this aim, we have realized an experimental study based on a new device in which we reproduce as realistically as possible the abrasion processes that act in natural rivers. With regard to previous studies, we confirm the control exerted by pebble lithology and particle velocity, with in particular a relationship between abrasion rate and particle kinetic energy. The dependence on particle size is, however, complex to describe by a single law; for example, the trend observed by using material that is heterogeneous in size is opposite to the one obtained by using graded material: in the first case, the smaller the particles, the faster they are abraded. These first results, which need to be characterized more finely by further experiments, indicate that pebble and bedrock abrasion strongly depends on numerous variables and that the bedload exerts a major control on the geomorphology and evolution of the fluvial network. Parallel to this experimental study, a field study has been carried out in an active orogenic setting (Marsyandi valley, Himalaya), where the downstream evolution of sediment characteristics can be interpreted in terms of abrasion during fluvial transport. Combining the two studies leads to new insights in sediment supply and transport modalities and in interactions between sediments and bedrock. We show, in particular, that the downstream evolution in grain size reflects mainly the influence of the sources and the transport modalities. Therefore, fining rates measured in the field cannot be compared directly with experimental abrasion rates. On the other hand, pebble abrasion can be revealed by the downstream evolution of lithologic proportions, the latter being less sensitive to source and transport effects. By using a simple numerical model, we achieve to reconcile experimental abrasion rates with those deduced from the observations along the Marsyandi River. Our experimental and field results emphasize the importance of the spatial and temporal distribution of supply zones and of their characteristics, and confirm the major role played by bedrock and bedload lithology in terms of controlling tectonic and denudational processes, and consequently in terms of the long term evolution of mountain ranges.Les reliefs terrestres résultent de la compétition entre deux processus antagonistes : le soulèvement tectonique et l'érosion. A l'échelle d'une chaîne de montagne, les rivières constituent les agents du modelé des paysages les plus importants : en réponse au soulèvement, elles s'incisent dans les massifs rocheux et contrôlent ainsi l'abaissement progressif du niveau de base pour les processus d'érosion des versants, notamment les glissements de terrain. Elles assurent de surcroît l'évacuation des produits de l'érosion de la chaîne sous forme de charge dissoute, de charge en suspension ou de charge de fond. Cette dernière interagit avec le substrat rocheux de la rivière et en contrôle la vitesse et le mode d'abrasion. Une bonne compréhension et une quantification des processus d'abrasion liés aux interactions entre les galets et le fond rocheux est donc nécessaire pour comprendre l'évolution des paysages montagneux. Dans cette optique, nous avons réalisé une étude expérimentale basée sur un dispositif inédit dans lequel nous reproduisons de manière relativement réaliste les processus d'abrasion effectifs en rivière naturelle. Par rapport aux précédentes études, nous confirmons le contrôle exercé par la lithologie des matériaux et par la vitesse des particules, avec notamment une relation entre le taux d'abrasion et l'énergie cinétique des galets. La dépendance vis-à-vis de la taille des particules est cependant complexe à décrire par une loi simple ; par exemple, la tendance observée au sein de matériel hétérogène granulométriquement va à l'encontre de ce que l'on observe lorsque l'on utilise du matériel calibré : plus les particules sont petites, plus elles s'érodent rapidement. Ces premiers résultats, même s'ils nécessitent d'être caractérisés plus finement dans le cadre d'expériences futures, indiquent que l'abrasion des galets comme celle du substrat rocheux dépend fortement de nombreuses variables et que la charge de fond exerce un contrôle majeur sur la géomorphologie du réseau fluvial et sur son évolution. En combinant cette étude à une étude de terrain en contexte orogénique actif (vallée de la Marsyandi, Himalaya), là où l'évolution des caractéristiques des sédiments vers l'aval peut être interprétée en terme d'abrasion au cours du transport, de nouvelles vues sur les modalités d'approvisionnement et de transport des sédiments et sur les interactions entre ceux-ci et le substrat des rivières ont pu être proposées. Nous montrons en particulier que l'évolution de la granulométrie des alluvions vers l'aval reflète principalement l'influence des sources et les modalités de transport. Les taux de réduction de taille mesurés sur le terrain ne peuvent donc pas être directement comparés à des taux d'abrasion. En revanche, l'abrasion des galets peut être mise en évidence par l'évolution des proportions lithologiques vers l'aval, celle-ci étant moins sensible aux effets de source et de transport. On parvient, via un modèle numérique simple, à réconcilier pour la première fois les taux d'abrasion obtenus expérimentalement et ceux déduits des observations faites le long de la rivière. Nos résultats de terrain et expérimentaux soulignent enfin l'importance de la distribution spatiale et temporelle des zones d'apport et de leurs caractéristiques et confirment le rôle majeur joué par la lithologie du substrat rocheux et de la charge de fond en terme de contrôle des processus tectoniques et de dénudation, et par conséquent en terme d'évolution à long terme des chaînes de montagne