Welfare during handling and killing of spent hens

Every year there are approximately 5.8 million spent hens removed in Sweden from at least 500 different farms (SJV, 2006; Svenska Ägg, 2006). Approximately 256 farms depopulate over 5000 hens at any one time. Flock sizes generally range between 10, 000 to 30,000 hens. The largest farm has approximately 300,000 laying hens and depopulates over 90,000 hens at any one time. There are four methods for the depopulation of hens: - Killing hens on farm by releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) at high concentrations in to layer sheds - Killing hens on farm by releasing Cyanide (HCN) at high concentrations in to layer sheds - Killing on farm by way of a portable electrical water-bath stun/neck cut kill apparatus - Sending hens by road transport to slaughter at a commercial abattoir that uses an electrical water-bath stun/neck cut kill system The killing method egg producers use is largely influenced by farm location. There is now only one abattoir in Sweden that processes spent hens. This abattoir is not within reasonable transport distances to some farms causing high transport costs and excessive transport duration for the hens. These farms therefore practice on-farm killing. In the 1980´s cyanide gas was used for on farm killing, but since year 2001, CO2 gassings have mostly been used. Killing of spent hens with CO2 or HCN is actually not permitted under Swedish law (SJVFS 2001-75, chapter 6, part 1). However, farmers can apply to the Swedish animal welfare authority for an exemption from this regulation. The farmer must apply for a permit for every flock they wish to kill. In 2005, approximately 19 farms (11 from Gotland) were given permission to depopulate their layer shed using CO2 gas. The number of hens ranged from the smallest flock size of 1100 to the largest of 88,000 hens. The total number of hens gassed with CO2 was 364, 600 hens, 34% which came from Gotland and 66% from the mainland, mostly around the Kalmar area (Swedish Animal Welfare Agency, 2006). Many producers with hens in loose house systems prefer to practice on farm killing due to welfare concerns with the catching, caging and transportation necessary when sending hens to slaughter. The carcasses of hens killed on farm by gassing must be sent to a specialised animal rendering plant for burning at cost to the farmer. In northern Sweden, there are 14 egg producers (the smallest with 3000 hens, the largest with 44,000 hens). These farmers practice on farm killing of hens with a small electrical water-bath stunning apparatus that is transportable and shared between them. The hens are then sent to the rendering plant. At least 140,000 hens are killed this way (Norrlansägg, 2006). There is one small company that offers on farm hen killing services for the purposes of processing the hens to pet food. The company travels to the farm with a portable electrical water-bath stunning apparatus, similar to the one used in northern Sweden, and hens are killed, debled and defeathered on the farm. The farmer does not have to pay for the disposal of the carcasses, as the carcasses are used by the company for pet food production providing some subsidy for the service. This company provided on farm killing and carcass removal services to approximately 20 farms in 2005 (Stefans and Nillans Foder, 2006). Nearly 80% or 3.1 million hens were sent to abattoir slaughter in the year 2005 (Svenskt Fågelkött AB, 2006). These hens are transported to the abattoir by the company’s own trucks. Transport distances vary from local to as far away as 714kms to the north, and 370kms to the south. Approximately 370 farms send hens to this abattoir. The farmer must pay for the transport and slaughter of these hens which are sent as fresh and frozen carcasses to Germany for soup and buljong production. Another aspect on the depopulation of birds is the need for depopulation to stop the spread of contagious disease such as e.g. Avian influenza. In an outbreak in the Netherlands 2003 more than 30 million birds were killed within a few weeks in order to stop the spread of the disease. During this outbreak CO2 stunning and killing was used instead of HCN mainly due to the risks of using HCN for human health during operating procedures, but also because enough HCN was not available on the market (Ooms, pers. comm. 2006). If a disease outbreak of such a kind should occur in Sweden a stamping out strategy needs to be applied where the welfare concerns are met in accordance with the “OIE GUIDELINES FOR THE KILLING OFANIMALS FOR DISEASE CONTROL PURPOSES”. Swedish on farm killing methods have been little studied from a welfare perspective. Therefore this study aimed to get a better understanding of hen welfare by observing different killing methods, and investigating the possibilities of making changes to improve hen welfar

Farm animal transport, welfare and meat quality

When animals are exposed to a novel situation such as transportation, they react by eliciting certain physiological and behavioural functions in order to cope with the situation. These changes can be measured to indicate how much stress the animal is suffering. Physiological stress indicators often measured in animal transport research include changes in heart rate, live-weight, cortisol levels, and blood composition including electrolytes, metabolites and enzymes (Broom and Johnson, 1993). Animal behavioural stress indicators include struggling, vocalisation, kicking or biting, hunching of the back, urination, defecation and recumbence (Broom et al. 1996; Gregory, 1998). Meat quality parameters post mortem can also help to indicate stress levels in animals (Grandin, 1990; Gregory, 1998). These include incidence of bruising and DFD in all farm animal species and PSE in pigs. Mortality is also an obvious indicator of poor welfare. Combined aspects of transport that contribute to causing stress in livestock include loading and unloading procedures, close proximity to stock handlers, water/feed deprivation, noise, riding in a truck, mixing with other animals and being forced into unfamiliar environments. The responses of stock to these conditions will depend on the animal's genetically controlled adaptability, physical condition and its previous handling experiences (Gross and Siegel, 1993). Factors such as the adequate preparation of animals for transport, controlled prior access to feed and water, minimal disruption to social groups, considerate animal handling skills, adequate handling and transport facilities including good ventilation in trucks, and careful driving technique are major areas that dictate the standard of animal transport. For example, considerations for pigs should include a pre-transport fasting period which balances the requirement to avoid hunger, travel sickness and deaths. Breeding and selecting for more stress-resistant genotypes of pigs can improve the welfare by reducing mortality and the metabolic consequences of transport stress. Other factors influencing animal transport include farm size and country size. For example, livestock transport in Scandinavia involves transport vehicles travelling to more than one farm in order to fill a vehicle. In Australia often one farm pick up can fill a truck, and although the distances may be much longer to the abattoir, it will be more direct. The market demand dictates the type of animals transported. For example the veal trade in Europe demands young live calves to be transported over long distances from northern countries which supply it to the southern countries which demand it. This trade exists in live animals rather than meat because the demanding countries further fatten and slaughter these animals specific to their needs. The industry set up influences the standard of animal transport in different countries. For example in countries where industries are vertically integrated consisting of producer-owned slaughter plant co-operatives (Sweden and Denmark), producers are paid according to slaughter weight and lean meat percentage, therefore there is more consistent quality control measures in place. In Australia the marketing system is such that it provides no economic incentive to reduce losses. Greater public awareness of animal welfare seems to be increasing in western countries, and as a result there is more pressure on the livestock industry to adopt better standards for the farming, handling, transport and slaughter of animals. The transport of livestock in Australia continues to be under increased scrutiny from overseas markets and animal welfare groups. In the European Union (EU), public pressure has been a successful instigator to the drafting and continued improvement of comprehensive legislation for animal transport. EU animal transport laws cover aspects such as minimum design standards for livestock vehicles (including ventilation controls), maximum journey lengths before resting intervals, stocking rates, what animals are considered as fit to travel, and general handling and care requirements of animals in transport. These laws are causing debate between northern and southern countries in areas such as maximum journey lengths and vehicle design standards. Some countries such as the UK have also gone to a great effort to adjust national laws in order to incorporate EU transport laws, but countries such as Spain and Italy have not. Typically it is these countries that more often have poor standards of animal welfare, and the welfare of farmed animals has historically been of low priority (Schmidt, 1995). When and how these countries will adopt the comprehensive EU animal transport regulations, continues to be an unanswered and politically sensitive question between EU member states

Assessment of cattle and pig welfare at stunning in commercial abattoirs

This thesis aimed to develop and implement a standardised assessment for stun quality for use in commercial pig and cattle abattoirs to protect animal welfare. A stun quality protocol identified and rated symptoms signifying recovery risk and level of concern for inferior animal welfare. The thesis also aimed to identify problem areas and methods for improving animal welfare standards at slaughter. Eighteen assessments were conducted on 9520 pigs stunned with CO₂ gas and 2725 cattle stunned with penetrating bolt concussion stunners. For pigs, insufficient CO₂ exposure times and concentrations contributed to a small percentage of pigs being inadequately stunned in three abattoirs using dip-lift systems; rectifying these elements resulted in 100% adequate stunning during follow-up studies. In the studies in cattle abattoirs, bulls were found to be significantly more likely to be inadequately stunned than other cattle types (heifers, cows and steers). Risk factors identified as contributing to a higher frequency of inadequate stunning included inappropriately designed loading and stun-box facilities, use of cartridge fired stunners that were too low in power for bulls, poor maintenance of stunners, inappropriate ammunition storage and the lack of neck restraints to prevent inaccurate shooting. Stun quality was optimised by the use of a Jarvis® pneumatic stunner in combination with neck restraints. Based on the display of different symptoms, the brains of twelve cattle were macroscopically analysed in two of the abattoirs studied, with the level of brain haemorrhage and tissue damage corresponding to the adequacy of the stun. The use of protocols such as those developed in this study can help standardise stun quality assessments and allow for benchmarking of stun quality at commercial slaughter. This can help to ensure that animal welfare standards are met. The conclusions of this thesis will be of interest and relevance to the commercial abattoirs and relevant authorities globally

Animal Welfare and Meat Quality Assessment in Gas Stunning during Commercial Slaughter of Pigs Using Hypercapnic-Hypoxia (20% CO2 2% O-2) Compared to Acute Hypercapnia (90% CO2 in Air)

Simple Summary Animals must be stunned before slaughter to avoid fear, pain, and distress. In pigs, the most extensively used method is exposure to hypercapnia (high (>80%) concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2)). However, it produces irritation of the mucosa and a sense of breathlessness, reducing the welfare before slaughter. We investigated whether using hypercapnic-hypoxia (20% CO2 and less than 2% O-2) reduced aversion and discomfort compared to hypercapnia, and whether the quality of the stunning was adequate, meaning that no animals regain conscious after stunning. Moreover, we compared the impact of both stunning gases for meat and carcass quality. Our results suggest that both gases provoked aversion and discomfort, but these were lower in pigs stunned with the N-2 mixture compared to high CO2. On the other hand, the stun quality of the N-2 mixture was poorer than high CO2 stunning, given that more animals regained consciousness before sticking with the N-2 gas mixture. The stunning quality of the N-2 mixture, however, was improved when oxygen concentration was below 2%. Meat quality was slightly poorer in N-2 stunning compared to high CO2, with a higher percentage of carcasses showing pale, soft, and exudative pork.This study assessed aversion, stunning effectiveness, and product quality of nitrogen and carbon dioxide (CO2) mixtures used for stunning pigs. A total of 1852 slaughter pigs divided into two similar batches was assessed during routine slaughter in a Swedish commercial abattoir using either hypercapnic-hypoxia (20% CO2 and less than 2% O-2; 20C2O) or hypercapnia (90% CO2; 90C) gas mixtures. Behavioral indicators of aversion and discomfort were recorded. After exposure, the stunning quality was assessed through brainstem reflexes. After slaughter, the pH and electric conductivity of carcasses were assessed to estimate the incidence of pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) pork, and the presence of ecchymosis were inspected. Compared to 90C, pigs exposed to 20C2O showed a later (p < 0.05) onset of behaviors indicative of aversion, and a lower (p < 0.01) incidence of breathlessness. However, unconsciousness (i.e., losing posture) appeared earlier (p < 0.01) in 90C compared to 20C2O. In 90C, all (100%) pigs were adequately stunned, whereas in 20C2O a 7.4% of pigs showed signs of poor stunning, especially when oxygen concentrations were >2% (p < 0.001). The percentage of PSE carcasses was higher (p < 0.01) in 20C2O than 90C. In conclusion, compared to 90C, 20C2O reduced aversion and discomfort but showed lower stun effectiveness, especially when O-2 was above 2%, and a slightly poorer pork quality

Financial capability, money attitudes and socioeconomic status: risks for experiencing adverse financial events

The risk of experiencing adverse financial events (e.g. bankruptcy) depends on the world economy and on individual differences in financial and psychological variables. Analysing data from 109,472 British survey respondents, this study reports the risks associated with financial capabilities, money attitudes, and socio-economic status for suffering negative financial outcomes. The results show that (1) socio-economic status is associated with financial capabilities but not with money attitudes; (2) money attitudes and financial capabilities are largely independent; (3) money attitudes and financial capabilities each contribute independently to the risk of experiencing adverse financial outcomes, even after adjusting for socio-economic status; and (4) financial capabilities are greater risk factors of adverse financial outcomes than money attitudes; the latter, however, are likely to be promising targets for interventions

Dynamical response of the southwestern Laurentide Ice Sheet to rapid Bølling–Allerød warming

The shift in climate that occurred between the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the Early Holocene (ca. 18–12 kyr BP) displayed rates of temperature increase similar to present-day warming trends. The most rapid recorded changes in temperature occurred during the abrupt climate oscillations known as the Bølling–Allerød interstadial (14.7–12.9 kyr BP) and the Younger Dryas stadial (12.9–11.7 kyr BP). Reconstructing ice sheet dynamics during these climate oscillations provides the opportunity to assess long-term ice sheet evolution in reaction to a rapidly changing climate. Here, we use glacial geomorphological inversion methods (flowsets) to reconstruct the ice flow dynamics and the marginal retreat pattern of the southwestern sector of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (SWLIS). We combine our reconstruction with a recently compiled regional deglaciation chronology to depict ice flow dynamics that encompass the time period from pre-LGM to the Early Holocene. Our reconstruction portrays three macroscale reorganizations in the orientation and dynamics of ice streaming followed by regional deglaciation associated with rapid warming during the Bølling–Allerød interstadial. Initial westward flow is documented, likely associated with an early set of ice streams that formed during the advance to the LGM. During the LGM ice streaming displays a dominant north to south orientation. Ice sheet thinning at ∼15 ka is associated with a macroscale reorganization in ice stream flow, with a complex of ice streams recording south-eastward flow. A second macroscale reorganization in ice flow is then observed at ∼14 ka, in which southwestern ice flow is restricted to the Hay, Peace, Athabasca, and Churchill river lowlands. Rates of ice sheet retreat then slowed considerably during the Younger Dryas stadial; at this time, the ice margin was situated north of the Canadian Shield boundary and ice flow continued to be sourced from the northeast. Resulting from these changes in ice sheet dynamics, we recognize a three-part pattern of deglacial landform zonation within the SWLIS characterized by active ice margin recession, stagnation and downwasting punctuated by local surging (terrestrial ice sheet collapse): the outer deglacial zone contains large recessional moraines aligned with the direction of active ice margin retreat; the intermediate deglacial zone contains large regions of hummocky and stagnation terrain, in some areas crosscut by the signature of local surges, reflecting punctuated stagnation and downwasting; and the inner deglacial zone contains inset recessional moraines demarcating progressive regional ice margin retreat. We attribute these macroscale changes in ice flow geometry and associated deglacial behaviour to external climatic controls during the Bølling–Allerød and Younger Dryas but also recognize the role of internal (glaciological, lithological and topographic) controls in SWLIS dynamics

Лесная наука в реализации концепции уральской инженерной школы: социально-экономические и экологические проблемы лесного сектора экономики

Материалы сборника включают доклады, отражающие современные достижения в технологии лесопромышленного производства, интенсификации лесного хозяйства, строительства и эксплуатации автомобильных дорог, отражаются современные достижения транспортных и технологических машин и оборудования лесного комплекса, обсуждаются экологические и химические технологии, а также вопросы менеджмента, экономики и управления на предприятиях и в отраслях и решения социально-экономических и гуманитарных проблем развития в современных условиях

Causal factors in construction accidents

Although the British construction industry is one of the safest in Europe, one third of all work fatalities happen in construction and construction workers are six times more likely to be killed at work than employees in other sectors. A similar situation exists for non-fatal accidents. Although previous research has led to a good understanding of the extent and pattern of accidents in the construction industry, there has been only limited objective analysis of the full range of contributory managerial, site and individual factors. With this background, the study had the following aims: 1. To collect rich, detailed data on the full range of factors involved in a large sample of construction accidents. 2. Using this information, to describe the processes of accident causation, including the contribution of management, project, site and individual factors in construction industry accidents. The research used a combination of focus groups and studies of individual accidents in pursuit of these