An Analysis of the Impact of Social Factors on Purchase Behavior

Consumers purchase conspicuous goods to satisfy not just material needs but also social needs such as prestige. In an attempt to meet these social needs, marketing managers of conspicuous goods like cars, perfumes, and watches employ several strategies to highlight the exclusivity of their products. These strategies include using exclusive distribution, charging high prices, and limiting production. Further, marketing textbooks suggest that the demand curve for prestige goods could be upward sloping and therefore firms should not set prices which are ``too low''. In this paper we examine whether the desire for exclusivity can lead to an upward-sloping demand curve. We also investigate how social factors such as the desire for exclusivity and conformity affect prices and firms' profits. To analyze these issues, we develop a model of conspicuous consumption using the rational expectations framework. We consider two different market structures: monopoly and duopoly. Our results shows that the desire for exclusivity can lead to an upward-sloping demand curve when there is a segment of consumers who are (weakly) conformists. The impact of exclusivity and conformity on prices and profits varies with the market structure. Interestingly, an increase in perceived functional differentiation of products consumed by snobs could decrease firms' profits and prices. In the laboratory, we observe an upward sloping demand curve for snobs, in both the monopoly and duopoly setting. We also track consumer's expectations, and find on average that subjects' beliefs are consistent with the observed outcome and the rational expectations equilibrium solution.Game Theory, Experimental Economics, Consumer Behavior, Rational Expectations, Prestige Pricing,

A comparative study of Okra gum on controlled release kinetics and other formulation characteristics of Tramadol HCl extended release matrix tablets Vs Synthetic hydrophilic polymers.

The main aim of this investigation was to develop a sustained release matrix tablets of Tramadol HCl using hydrophilic polymers such as hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC), in different grades (E15LV, K4M, K100M) and compare the various parameters against the natural polysaccharide Okra gum. The polymer proportions are used in different concentration in order to optimize the correct proportion of polymer to achieve controlled release profile. The matrix tablets were prepared by direct compression technique which is more industrially relevant. A small quantity of Carbopol was also incorporated in the formulation to give bio-adhesiveness & improved compression characteristics. The formulations were studied for pre-compression parameters and post-compression parameters. The in vitro drug release study was performed in 0.1N HCl (pH 1.2) for 1.5 hour and phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) were upto 12 hours. The study results revealed that the matrix tablet can be developed with the used polymers without any tablet manufacturing defects in optimized polymer concentration.. The polymers could control the drug release in various levels according to the concentration present in the formulation. The drug release profile was fitted with various pharmacokinetics models. The formulations showed the different degree of fit with different kinetic models. The drug release mechanism involves the combined process of diffusion, swelling and erosion

Nanocatalytic CePO4·H2O (Rhabdophane): Mitochondrial-Targeting, Cell-Discriminative, ROS-Mediated Cancer Therapy

Nanocatalytic tumor therapies involve established strategies to increase the concentration of endogenous oxygen species (ROS) H2O2 to cytotoxic levels. These strategies are based on increasing the ROS levels through stimuli from drugs, the action of ROS-producing agents, and nanoparticulate catalysis. However, these techniques frequently are indiscriminatory, being cytotoxic to diseased cells and normal cells alike, leading to significant unwanted side-effects. The present work reports a new paradigm strategy based upon the catalytic action of a cell-discriminative, ROS-mediating, autophagy-suppressive nanoparticle, which is CePO4·H2O (rhabdophane). CePO4·H2O nanoparticles were synthesised using CeNO3·6H2O precipitated in an aqueous solution of sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) at room temperature. The nanoparticles were well crystallised, equiaxed (~10-35 nm), of positive surface charge, and of general valence ratio 〖"Ce" 〗_"0.8" ^"3+" 〖"Ce" 〗_"0.2" ^"4+" 〖"PO" 〗_"4.1" . Materials characterisation involved particuological (hydrodynamic particle size, surface area, zeta potential), mineralogical (X-ray diffraction, laser Raman microspectroscopy), chemical (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy), structural (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy), and microstructural (transmission electron microscopy) analyses. Biological characterisation involved examination of the effects on HT-1080 fibrosarcoma cells and MRC-5 normal fibroblasts in terms of cellular interactions (cell viability by MTT assay), cellular uptake and trafficking (confocal laser scanning microscopy, biological transmission electron microscopy, flow cytometry), ROS generation (confocal laser scanning microscopy, flow cytometry), apoptosis (annexin V-FITC assay), gene expression (q-RT-PRC), and protein expression (western blot analyses). The key observations and conclusions from the biological evaluation are as follows: Discriminative Cytotoxicity: CePO4·H2O nanoparticles are the first to exhibit discriminative cytotoxicity: At 24 h, fibrosarcoma HT-1080 cell viability is ~10% but MRC-5 normal cell viability is ~45%. Discriminative Uptake: CePO4·H2O nanoparticles are the first, without the use of a targeting ligand, to be internalized readily by cancer cells but scarcely by normal cells. Self-Targeting: CePO4·H2O nanoparticles are trafficked toward the mitochondrial environment and possibly the converse trafficking. Mitochondrial Starvation: The preceding proximity between CePO4·H2O nanoparticles and cancer cell leads to increased phosphate concentration in the cellular environment, the concentration gradient of which effectively starves the mitochondria, leading to mitochondrial stress and dysfunction. Discriminative ROS Generation: CePO4·H2O nanoparticles are the first to demonstrate elevated cellular ROS in cancer cells by multiple mechanisms while normal cells exhibit only a low level of such elevation. Autophagy Suppression: CePO4·H2O nanoparticles suppress autophagy, thereby increasing cellular stress and suppressing cancer cell survival, thus offering a complement to mitochondrial starvation. Redox Switching: CePO4·H2O nanoparticles are the first nonmetallic nanoparticles to balance redox switching through simple electronic charge compensation rather than more complex ionic charge compensation. Biocompatibility: As hydrated phosphates, CePO4·H2O nanoparticles are more biocompatible than metals or oxides, suggesting greater feasibility of renal clearance. These advantages derive from the key role of the redox and defect equilibria arising from the oxidation reaction Ce3+ → Ce4+ + e′, which is induced by the acidic pH environment of the cancer call versus the stability of the Ce3+ valence in the basic pH environment of the normal cell. The former both elevates the ROS level and disrupts the electron transfer chain. Ultimately, the suppression of the proliferation of cancer cells derives from the cross-talk involving cellular ROS elevation, autophagy suppression, and their mitochondrial control

Alliances in the Shadow of Conflict

Victorious alliances often fight about the spoils of war. This paper presents an experiment on the determinants of whether alliances break up and fight internally after having defeated a joint enemy. First, if peaceful sharing yields an asymmetric rent distribution, this increases the likelihood of fighting. In turn, anticipation of the higher likelihood of internal fight reduces the alliance’s ability to succeed against the outside enemy. Second, the option to make non-binding declarations on non-aggression in the relationship between alliance members does not make peaceful settlement within the alliance more likely. Third, higher differences in the alliance players’ contributions to alliance effort lead to more internal conflict and more intense fighting

Strategically Equivalent Contests

Using a two-player Tullock-type contest, we show that intuitively and structurally different contests can be strategically equivalent. Strategically equivalent contests generate the same best response functions and, as a result, the same equilibrium efforts. However, strategically equivalent contests may yield different equilibrium payoffs. We propose a simple two-step procedure to identify strategically equivalent contests. Using this procedure, we identify contests that are strategically equivalent to the original Tullock contest, and provide new examples of strategically equivalent contests. Finally, we discuss possible contest design applications and avenues for future theoretical and empirical research

An Experimental Investigation of Colonel Blotto Games

"This article examines behavior in the two-player, constant-sum Colonel Blotto game with asymmetric resources in which players maximize the expected number of battlefields won. The experimental results support all major theoretical predictions. In the auction treatment, where winning a battlefield is deterministic, disadvantaged players use a 'guerilla warfare' strategy which stochastically allocates zero resources to a subset of battlefields. Advantaged players employ a 'stochastic complete coverage' strategy, allocating random, but positive, resource levels across the battlefields. In the lottery treatment, where winning a battlefield is probabilistic, both players divide their resources equally across all battlefields." (author's abstract)"Dieser Artikel untersucht das Verhalten von Individuen in einem 'constant-sum Colonel Blotto'-Spiel zwischen zwei Spielern, bei dem die Spieler mit unterschiedlichen Ressourcen ausgestattet sind und die erwartete Anzahl gewonnener Schlachtfelder maximieren. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse bestätigen alle wichtigen theoretischen Vorhersagen. Im Durchgang, in dem wie in einer Auktion der Sieg in einem Schlachtfeld deterministisch ist, wenden die Spieler, die sich im Nachteil befinden, eine 'Guerillataktik' an, und verteilen ihre Ressourcen stochastisch auf eine Teilmenge der Schlachtfelder. Spieler mit einem Vorteil verwenden eine Strategie der 'stochastischen vollständigen Abdeckung', indem sie zufällig eine positive Ressourcenmenge auf allen Schlachtfeldern positionieren. Im Durchgang, in dem sich der Gewinn eines Schlachtfeldes probabilistisch wie in einer Lotterie bestimmt, teilen beide Spieler ihre Ressourcen gleichmäßig auf alle Schlachtfelder auf." (Autorenreferat

Epidemiology of Untreated Psychoses in 3 Diverse Settings in the Global South: The International Research Program on Psychotic Disorders in Diverse Settings (INTREPID II).

IMPORTANCE: Less than 10% of research on psychotic disorders has been conducted in settings in the Global South, which refers broadly to the regions of Latin America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania. There is a lack of basic epidemiological data on the distribution of and risks for psychoses that can inform the development of services in many parts of the world. OBJECTIVE: To compare demographic and clinical profiles of cohorts of cases and rates of untreated psychoses (proxy for incidence) across and within 3 economically and socially diverse settings in the Global South. Two hypotheses were tested: (1) demographic and clinical profiles of cases with an untreated psychotic disorder vary across setting and (2) rates of untreated psychotic disorders vary across and within setting by clinical and demographic group. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: The International Research Program on Psychotic Disorders in Diverse Settings (INTREPID II) comprises incidence, case-control, and cohort studies of untreated psychoses in catchment areas in 3 countries in the Global South: Kancheepuram District, India; Ibadan, Nigeria; and northern Trinidad. Participants were individuals with an untreated psychotic disorder. This incidence study was conducted from May 1, 2018, to July 31, 2020. In each setting, comprehensive systems were implemented to identify and assess all individuals with an untreated psychosis during a 2-year period. Data were analyzed from January 1 to May 1, 2022. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The presence of an untreated psychotic disorder, assessed using the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry, which incorporate the Present State Examination. RESULTS: Identified were a total of 1038 cases, including 64 through leakage studies (Kancheepuram: 268; median [IQR] age, 42 [33-50] years; 154 women [57.5%]; 114 men [42.5%]; Ibadan: 196; median [IQR] age, 34 [26-41] years; 93 women [47.4%]; 103 men [52.6%]; Trinidad: 574; median [IQR] age, 30 [23-40] years; 235 women [40.9%]; 339 men [59.1%]). Marked variations were found across and within settings in the sex, age, and clinical profiles of cases (eg, lower percentage of men, older age at onset, longer duration of psychosis, and lower percentage of affective psychosis in Kancheepuram compared with Ibadan and Trinidad) and in rates of untreated psychosis. Age- and sex-standardized rates of untreated psychoses were approximately 3 times higher in Trinidad (59.1/100 000 person-years; 95% CI, 54.2-64.0) compared with Kancheepuram (20.7/100 000 person-years; 95% CI, 18.2-23.2) and Ibadan (14.4/100 000 person-years; 95% CI, 12.3-16.5). In Trinidad, rates were approximately 2 times higher in the African Trinidadian population (85.4/100 000 person-years; 95% CI, 76.0-94.9) compared with the Indian Trinidadian (43.9/100 000 person-years; 95% CI, 35.7-52.2) and mixed populations (50.7/100 000 person-years; 95% CI, 42.0-59.5). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: This analysis adds to research that suggests that core aspects of psychosis vary by historic, economic, and social context, with far-reaching implications for understanding and treatment of psychoses globally

Best-of-Three Contests: Experimental Evidence

We conduct an experimental analysis of a best-of-three Tullock contest. Intermediate prizes lead to higher efforts, while increasing the role of luck (as opposed to effort) leads to lower efforts. Both intermediate prizes and luck reduce the probability of contest ending in two rounds. The patterns of players‟ efforts and the probability that a contest ends in two rounds is consistent with „strategic momentum‟, i.e. momentum generated due to strategic incentives inherent in the contest. We do not find evidence for „psychological momentum‟, i.e. momentum which emerges when winning affects players‟ confidence. Similar to previous studies of contests, we find significantly higher efforts than predicted and strong heterogeneity in effort between subjects