Bir Bilgi Tanımının Eleştirisi: Devvânî’nin Risâle fî Ta‘rîfi’l-‘İlm Bağlamında

Bu çalışmada, Celâleddîn ed-Devvânî’nin (öl. 908/1502) Risâle fî ta‘rîfi’l-‘ilm isimli risalesi tahlil edilmektedir. Risalede müteahhir dönem kimi kelamcıların benimsediği bir bilgi tanımı eleştirilmektedir. Araştırması yapılan bilgi tanımının üç bileşeni bulunmaktadır: Sıfat, temyiz ve çelişiğe ihtimali olmamak. Bilgi kategori olarak bir sıfattır. Bu sıfat ile temyiz elde edilir. Sonuç bilgidir ve bu bilginin çelişiğine ihtimali olmamalıdır. Devvânî bu bilgi tanımının sekiz ihtimalini incelemektedir. Sekiz ihtimalin her birinde farklı sorunlar ortaya çıkmaktadır. Devvânî’ye göre sözü edilen tanım, her ihtimale göre sorunludur. Fakat Devvânî eleştirdiği bilgi tanımının yerine başka bir bilgi tanımı önermemektedir. Makalede öncelikle kelam düşünce tarihinde sözü edilen bilgi tanımına ulaşma süreci anlatılacaktır. İlk dönemden itibaren yapılan bilgi tanımları özetlenecektir. Tanımların güçlü ve zayıf yönleri yorumlanacaktır. İslam düşüncesinde bilginin mahiyetine yönelik iki ana akım vardır: Fahreddin er-Râzî’nin (öl. 606/1210) başını çektiği ilk akıma göre mutlak bilgi bedihidir, tanımlanamaz. İkinci akıma göre mutlak bilginin mahiyeti nazarîdir, tanımlanabilir. Makaledeki ilk başlık İslam düşüncesinde bilgi tanımları ve eleştirileridir. Çalışmadaki ikinci başlık özgünlük iddiası taşımaktadır. Çünkü Devvânî’nin anılan risalesi ilk kez değerlendirilecektir. Risalenin sonucuna göre bilginin özünü bulmak için yapılan tanım, her açıdan temelsizdir. İslam düşünce tarihinde özcülük karşıtlığının bir yansıması olarak risalenin değerlendirilmesi önem arz etmektedir. Modern çalışmaların çoğu bu risaleyi Devvânî’nin eserleri arasında saymamaktadırlar. Hayreddin ez-Ziriklî (öl. 1976) tarafından kaleme alınan el-Aʿlâm adlı biyografi kitabında Risâle fî ta‘rîfi’l-‘ilm Devvânî’nin eserleri arasında sayılmıştır. Birden çok yazma nüshanın girişinde de eser, Devvânî’ye açıkça nispet edilmiştir. Çift taraflı yapılan araştırmalar sonucunda eserin müellife aidiyeti sağlanmıştır. Ancak aynı risaleyi içeren başka iki yazma nüshada eser, Şâirzâde isimli meçhul bir şahsa ait gibi gösterilmektedir. Fakat bu isimle ilgili herhangi bir bilgiye ulaşılmamıştır. Bu isim bir müellif olmaktan çok müstensih ismine benzemektedir. İki ismin birbirine karıştırılması sonucunda böyle bir yanlışlık olmuş gibi gözükmektedir. Devvânî’nin küçük hacimli bu risalesi dönemin ilmi atmosferine ve entelektüel seviyesine ışık tutacak niteliktedir. Adudüddîn Îcî’nin (öl. 756/1355) Mevâkıf adlı klasik kelam kitabında sözü edilen bilgi tanımı diğer bilgi tanımlarından üstün tutulmaktadır. Kusursuz olarak takdim edilen bu bilgi tanımı yerine Cürcânî (öl. 816/1413) Şerh-i Mevâkıf’ta Mâtürîdî’ye (öl. 333/944) atfedilen bilgi tanımını tercih etmiştir. Bu tercih, Devvânî’nin de içinde bulunduğu gelecek kuşaklar için örtük bir eleştiri kabul edilmiştir. Cürcânî’nin gelişigüzel tercih de bulunmadığı yorumunu yapanlar, tanımın üzerine giderek eleştirileri devam ettirmiştir. Risalede ortaya konulan ince işçilik, eleştirel düşüncenin yoğun bir şekilde işletildiğini gözler önüne sermektedir. Risalenin doğru anlaşılması mantık ilminin bilinmesine ve takip edilmesi ise yoğun bir dikkate bağlıdır. Mantık ilminin tasavvur, tasdik, hüküm, nakz gibi kavramlarından alınan yardımla bilginin tanımı çeşitli açılar incelenmektedir. Mantık ilminde kesin, zan, taklit, şüphe gibi bilginin her türlü katmanı tek tek araştırılmaktadır. Kelam ilminde ise bilginin ideal düzeyi olan kesin olmasına dikkat edilmektedir. Kesin olmayan bir bilinen, kelam ilminde bilgi sayılmamaktadır. Çünkü kelamcıların temel hedefi, dinî inançları kesin bilgi üzerine inşa etmektir. Kesin olmayan, muhtemel bilginin başka bir şeye temel olması yanlıştır. Bilinenler arasındaki bir bilginin kesinlik düzeyine ulaşması için doğru olması ve diğer ihtimalleri dışarıda bırakması gerekmektedir. Devvânî’nin risalesinde incelediği bilgi tanımındaki kesinlik için koşulan diğer şart aksinin yanlış olmasıdır. Bir bilginin kesin doğru sayılması tersinin yanlış olmasına bağlıdır. İşte bu risalede ihtimal dışı bırakılmak istenen çelişiklerin veya çelişkinin nerede aranacağı tartışılmaktadır. Bilgi, insan zihninden, dış dünyadan veya ikisi arasındaki ilişkinin kendisinden ayrılmamaktadır. Öyleyse çelişki bu üç alanda aranmalıdır. Risalede Devvânî bilgi tanımını bu üç alanı dikkate alarak eleştirmektedir

Lacerta agilis (Squamata: Lacertidae)’in Türkiye’deki yeni lokalite kaydı

In this study, it was given the locality record of the sand lizard (Lacerta agilis) from Yeşilköy Village, Pazar District of Rize Province of Turkey. This new record revealed the second locality for L. agilis from the eastern Black Sea coast of Anatolia. The metric and meristic features of the adult, subadult and juvenile specimens were compared to the features of the specimens of the species, L. agilis in the literature.Bu çalışmada, Kars kertenkelesi (Lacerta agilis)’in Türkiye’de Rize ilinin Pazar ilçesinin Yeşilköy köyünden lokalite kaydı verilmiştir. Bu yeni kayıt L. agilis türünün Anadolu’nun Doğu Karadeniz kısmındaki ikinci lokalite kaydını oluşturmaktadır. Ergin, yarı ergin ve juvenile bireylerin metric ve meristic özellikleri literatürde L. agilis türünün bireylerinin özellikleriyle karşılaştırılmıştır

Investigating the Opinions of Teachers on the Processes of Vocational Counselling, Training and Employment of Special Needs Students

The statistics of the Ministry of National Education (MEB) show that the number of students who are pursuing their education in general education environments in scope of inclusion programs is increasing every year. It is observed that the number of special needs students who continue their secondary education after primary education is increasing with the regulation that makes it mandatory to have 12 years of education. While directing special needs (SN) students towards secondary education, families and experts prefer vocational high schools where these students can learn functional skills. This is why the opinions of teachers who work at vocational high schools are important. The purpose of this study is to investigate the opinions of technical teachers working at vocational high schools, school counsellors, culture course teachers and special education teachers providing support education to students on the processes of vocational counselling, training and employment of special needs students. Towards this purpose, semi-structured interviews were held with a total of 59 teachers using a form prepared by the researchers. The findings indicated that the opinions of technical teachers at vocational high schools on inclusion and continuation of SN students in vocational high schools were more negative in comparison to those of culture course teachers and school counsellors, and there were significant shortcomings in the professional training of SN students. It was also seen that special needs teachers were not sufficiently informed about the job prospects and employment of SN students, and they used limited opportunities for their students

Nosocomial Oral Myiasis by Sarcophaga sp. in Turkey

We present a case of oral myiasis in a 15-year-old boy with tuberculosis meningitis. The diagnosis was based on the visual presence of wriggling larvae about 1 cm in size and on the microscopic features of the maggots, especially those relating to stigmatic structures. The larvae were identified as third-stage larvae of Sarcophaga sp

The epidemiology, Clinical Manifestations, radiology, microbiology, treatment, and prognosis of echinococcosis: Results of NENEHATUN study

Aim: Echinococcosis, caused by Echinococcus species, is an important zoonotic disease causing major health problems in humans and animals. Herein, we aimed to evaluate the epidemiology, clinical and laboratory parameters, radiological, serological, pathological, and treatment protocols of followed-up cases of hydatidosis. Methods: A total of 550 patients diagnosed with hydatid cyst disease were included in this study. Patients who were positive for one or more of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or indirect hemagglutination test, pathological results, or radiological findings were examined. The data analyzed were collected from nine centers between 2008 and 2020. Records were examined retrospectively. Results: Among the patients, 292 (53.1%) were women and 258 (46.9%) were men. The patients' mean age was 44.4 +/- 17.4 years. A history of living in rural areas was recorded in 57.4% of the patients. A total of 435 (79.1%) patients were symptomatic. The most common symptoms were abdominal pain in 277 (50.4%), listlessness in 244 (44.4%), and cough in 140 (25.5%) patients. Hepatomegaly was found in 147 (26.7%), and decreased breath sounds were observed in 124 (22.5%) patients. Radiological examination was performed in all cases and serological methods were also applied to 428 (77.8%) patients. The most frequently applied serological test was IHA (37.8%). A single cyst has been found in 66% patients. Hepatic involvement occurred in 327 (59.4%), pulmonary involvement was found in 128 (23.3%), whereas both of them were recorded in 43 (7.8%) patients. Splenic involvement was only detected in nine (1.6%) patients. Echinococcus granulosus (72.5%) was most frequently detected. Cyst diameters of 56.9% of the patients were in the range of 5-10 cm. A total of 414 (75.2%) patients received albendazole as an antiparasitic. Mortality was noted in nine (1.6%) patients. Conclusion: Echinococcosis is an important public health problem in Turkey. It can affect the social, economic, and political structures of the community. Public education and awareness are extremely important

New Alien Mediterranean Biodiversity Records (August 2022)

In this Collective Article on alien and cryptogenic diversity in the Mediterranean Sea we report a total of 19 species belonging to nine Phyla and coming from nine countries. Several of these records concern fish species, and of particular interest are the first records of: Terapon puta for Italian waters; Pteragopus trispilus from Malta; Plotosus lineatus from Cyprus; and the northernmost Mediterranean record of Lagocephalus sceleratus. The northernmost Mediterranean record was also reported for the sea urchin Diadema setosum. The portunid crab Thalamita poissonii was recorded for the first time in Libya. The copepod Pseudodiaptomus marinus was recorded for the first time in the Marmara Sea. The polychaete Branchiomma luctuosum was recorded for the first time from the Mediterranean coast of France. The alien anemone Diadumene lineata was recorded for the first time from Slovenia. The macroalgae Sargassum furcatum was recorded for the first time from Italy. The new Mediterranean records here reported help tracing abundance and distribution of alien and cryptic species in the Mediterranean Sea

The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe

By sequencing 727 ancient individuals from the Southern Arc (Anatolia and its neighbors in Southeastern Europe and West Asia) over 10,000 years, we contextualize its Chalcolithic period and Bronze Age (about 5000 to 1000 BCE), when extensive gene flow entangled it with the Eurasian steppe. Two streams of migration transmitted Caucasus and Anatolian/Levantine ancestry northward, and the Yamnaya pastoralists, formed on the steppe, then spread southward into the Balkans and across the Caucasus into Armenia, where they left numerous patrilineal descendants. Anatolia was transformed by intra–West Asian gene flow, with negligible impact of the later Yamnaya migrations. This contrasts with all other regions where Indo-European languages were spoken, suggesting that the homeland of the Indo-Anatolian language family was in West Asia, with only secondary dispersals of non-Anatolian Indo-Europeans from the steppe

Mortality from gastrointestinal congenital anomalies at 264 hospitals in 74 low-income, middle-income, and high-income countries: a multicentre, international, prospective cohort study

Summary Background Congenital anomalies are the fifth leading cause of mortality in children younger than 5 years globally. Many gastrointestinal congenital anomalies are fatal without timely access to neonatal surgical care, but few studies have been done on these conditions in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). We compared outcomes of the seven most common gastrointestinal congenital anomalies in low-income, middle-income, and high-income countries globally, and identified factors associated with mortality. Methods We did a multicentre, international prospective cohort study of patients younger than 16 years, presenting to hospital for the first time with oesophageal atresia, congenital diaphragmatic hernia, intestinal atresia, gastroschisis, exomphalos, anorectal malformation, and Hirschsprung’s disease. Recruitment was of consecutive patients for a minimum of 1 month between October, 2018, and April, 2019. We collected data on patient demographics, clinical status, interventions, and outcomes using the REDCap platform. Patients were followed up for 30 days after primary intervention, or 30 days after admission if they did not receive an intervention. The primary outcome was all-cause, in-hospital mortality for all conditions combined and each condition individually, stratified by country income status. We did a complete case analysis. Findings We included 3849 patients with 3975 study conditions (560 with oesophageal atresia, 448 with congenital diaphragmatic hernia, 681 with intestinal atresia, 453 with gastroschisis, 325 with exomphalos, 991 with anorectal malformation, and 517 with Hirschsprung’s disease) from 264 hospitals (89 in high-income countries, 166 in middleincome countries, and nine in low-income countries) in 74 countries. Of the 3849 patients, 2231 (58·0%) were male. Median gestational age at birth was 38 weeks (IQR 36–39) and median bodyweight at presentation was 2·8 kg (2·3–3·3). Mortality among all patients was 37 (39·8%) of 93 in low-income countries, 583 (20·4%) of 2860 in middle-income countries, and 50 (5·6%) of 896 in high-income countries (p<0·0001 between all country income groups). Gastroschisis had the greatest difference in mortality between country income strata (nine [90·0%] of ten in lowincome countries, 97 [31·9%] of 304 in middle-income countries, and two [1·4%] of 139 in high-income countries; p≤0·0001 between all country income groups). Factors significantly associated with higher mortality for all patients combined included country income status (low-income vs high-income countries, risk ratio 2·78 [95% CI 1·88–4·11], p<0·0001; middle-income vs high-income countries, 2·11 [1·59–2·79], p<0·0001), sepsis at presentation (1·20 [1·04–1·40], p=0·016), higher American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) score at primary intervention (ASA 4–5 vs ASA 1–2, 1·82 [1·40–2·35], p<0·0001; ASA 3 vs ASA 1–2, 1·58, [1·30–1·92], p<0·0001]), surgical safety checklist not used (1·39 [1·02–1·90], p=0·035), and ventilation or parenteral nutrition unavailable when needed (ventilation 1·96, [1·41–2·71], p=0·0001; parenteral nutrition 1·35, [1·05–1·74], p=0·018). Administration of parenteral nutrition (0·61, [0·47–0·79], p=0·0002) and use of a peripherally inserted central catheter (0·65 [0·50–0·86], p=0·0024) or percutaneous central line (0·69 [0·48–1·00], p=0·049) were associated with lower mortality. Interpretation Unacceptable differences in mortality exist for gastrointestinal congenital anomalies between lowincome, middle-income, and high-income countries. Improving access to quality neonatal surgical care in LMICs will be vital to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 3.2 of ending preventable deaths in neonates and children younger than 5 years by 2030