Spectroscopy-supported digital soil mapping

Global environmental changes have resulted in changes in key ecosystem services that soils provide. It is necessary to have up to date soil information on regional and global scales to ensure that these services continue to be provided. As a result, Digital Soil Mapping (DSM) research priorities are among others, advancing methods for data collection and analyses tailored towards large-scale mapping of soil properties. Scientifically, this thesis contributed to the development of methodologies, which aim to optimally use remote and proximal sensing (RS and PS) for DSM to facilitate regional soil mapping. The main contributions of this work with respect to the latter are (I) the critical evaluation of recent research achievements and identification of knowledge gaps for large-scale DSM using RS and PS data, (II) the development of a sparse RS-based sampling approach to represent major soil variability at regional scale, (III) the evaluation and development of different state-of-the-art methods to retrieve soil mineral information from PS, (IV) the improvement of spatially explicit soil prediction models and (V) the integration of RS and PS methods with geostatistical and DSM methods. A review on existing literature about the use of RS and PS for soil and terrain mapping was presented in Chapter 2. Recent work indicated the large potential of using RS and PS methods for DSM. However, for large-scale mapping, current methods will need to be extended beyond the plot. Improvements may be expected in the fields of developing more quantitative methods, enhanced geostatistical analysis and improved transferability to other areas. From these findings, three major research interests were selected: (I) soil sampling strategies, (II) retrieval of soil information from PS and (III) spatially continuous mapping of soil properties at larger scales using RS. Budgetary constraints, limited time and available soil legacy data restricted the soil data acquisition, presented in Chapter 3. A 15.000 km2 area located in Northern Morocco served as test case. Here, a sample was collected using constrained Latin Hypercube Sampling (cLHS) of RS and elevation data. The RS data served as proxy for soil variability, as alternative for the required soil legacy data supporting the sampling strategy. The sampling aim was to optimally sample the variability in the RS data while minimizing the acquisition efforts. This sample resulted in a dataset representing major soil variability. The cLHS sample failed to express spatial correlation; constraining the LHS by a distance criterion favoured large spatial variability over short distances. The absence of spatial correlation in the sampled soil variability precludes the use of additional geostatistical analyses to spatially predict soil properties. Predicting soil properties using the cLHS sample is thus restricted to a modelled statistical relation between the sample and exhaustive predictor variables. For this, the RS data provided the necessary spatial information because of the strong spatial correlation while the spectral information provided the variability of the environment (Chapter 3 and 6). Concluding, the RS-based cLHS approach is considered a time and cost efficient method for acquiring information on soil resources over extended areas. This sample was further used for developing methods to derive soil mineral information from PS, and to characterize regional soil mineralogy using RS. In Chapter 4, the influences of complex scattering within the mixture and overlapping absorption features were investigated. This was done by comparing the success of PRISM’s MICA in determining mineralogy of natural samples and modelled spectra. The modelled spectra were developed by a linearly forward model of reflectance spectra, using the fraction of known constituents within the sample. The modelled spectra accounted for the co-occurrence of absorption features but eluded the complex interaction between the components. It was found that more minerals could be determined with higher accuracy using modelled reflectance. The absorption features in the natural samples were less distinct or even absent, which hampered the classification routine. Nevertheless, grouping the individual minerals into mineral categories significantly improved the classification accuracy. These mineral categories are particularly useful for regional scale studies, as key soil property for parent material characterization and soil formation. Characterizing regional soil mineralogy by mineral categories was further described in Chapter 6. Retrieval of refined information from natural samples, such as mineral abundances, is more complex; estimating abundances requires a method that accounts for the interaction between minerals within the intimate mixture. This can be done by addressing the interaction with a non-linear model (Chapter 5). Chapter 5 showed that mineral abundances in complex mixtures could be estimated using absorption features in the 2.1–2.4 µm wavelength region. First, the absorption behaviour of mineral mixtures was parameterized by exponential Gaussian optimization (EGO). Next, mineral abundances were successfully predicted by regression tree analysis, using these parameters as inputs. Estimating mineral abundances using prepared mixes of calcite, kaolinite, montmorillonite and dioctahedral mica or field samples proved the validity of the proposed method. Estimating mineral abundances of field samples showed the necessity to deconvolve spectra by EGO. Due to the nature of the field samples, the simple representation of the complex scattering behaviour by a few Gaussian bands required the parameters asymmetry and saturation to accurately deconvolve the spectra. Also, asymmetry of the EGO profiles showed to be an important parameter for estimating the abundances of the field samples. The robustness of the method in handling the omission of minerals during the training phase was tested by replacing part of the quartz with chlorite. It was found that the accuracy of the predicted mineral content was hardly affected. Concluding, the proposed method allowed for estimating more than two minerals within a mixture. This approach advances existing PS methods and has the potential to quantify a wider set of soil properties. With this method the soil science community was provided an improved inference method to derive and quantify soil properties The final challenge of this thesis was to spatially explicit model regional soil mineralogy using the sparse sample from Chapter 3. Prediction models have especially difficulties relating predictor variables to sampled properties having high spatial correlation. Chapter 6 presented a methodology that improved prediction models by using scale-dependent spatial variability observed in RS data. Mineral predictions were made using the abundances from X-ray diffraction analysis and mineral categories determined by PRISM. The models indicated that using the original RS data resulted in lower model performance than those models using scaled RS data. Key to the improved predictions was representing the variability of the RS data at the same scale as the sampled soil variability. This was realized by considering the medium and long-range spatial variability in the RS data. Using Fixed Rank Kriging allowed smoothing the massive RS datasets to these ranges. The resulting images resembled more closely the regional spatial variability of soil and environmental properties. Further improvements resulted from using multi-scale soil-landscape relationships to predict mineralogy. The maps of predicted mineralogy showed agreement between the mineral categories and abundances. Using a geostatistical approach in combination with a small sample, substantially improves the feasibility to quantitatively map regional mineralogy. Moreover, the spectroscopic method appeared sufficiently detailed to map major mineral variability. Finally, this approach has the potential for modelling various natural resources and thereby enhances the perspective of a global system for inventorying and monitoring the earth’s soil resources. With this thesis it is demonstrated that RS and PS methods are an important but also an essential source for regional-scale DSM. Following the main findings from this thesis, it can be concluded that: Improvements in regional-scale DSM result from the integrated use of RS and PS with geostatistical methods. In every step of the soil mapping process, spectroscopy can play a key role and can deliver data in a time and cost efficient manner. Nevertheless, there are issues that need to be resolved in the near future. Research priorities involve the development of operational tools to quantify soil properties, sensor integration, spatiotemporal modelling and the use of geostatistical methods that allow working with massive RS datasets. This will allow us in the near future to deliver more accurate and comprehensive information about soils, soil resources and ecosystem services provided by soils at regional and, ultimately, global scale.</p

Proceedings of the Third Annual Symposium on Mathematical Pattern Recognition and Image Analysis

Topics addressed include: multivariate spline method; normal mixture analysis applied to remote sensing; image data analysis; classifications in spatially correlated environments; probability density functions; graphical nonparametric methods; subpixel registration analysis; hypothesis integration in image understanding systems; rectification of satellite scanner imagery; spatial variation in remotely sensed images; smooth multidimensional interpolation; and optimal frequency domain textural edge detection filters

Improved Conditioning to Hard, Soft and Dynamic Data In Multiple-Point Geostatistical Simulation

RÉSUMÉ Dans cette dissertation, nous présentons trois méthodes visant à corriger autant de problèmes observés dans les simulations géostatistiques basées sur des statistiques multipoint (MPS). Le premier problème est le conditionnement aux données exactes (hard data) des algorithmes MPS par morceaux (patch-based). Le second problème est l’utilisation efficace de données auxiliaires (soft data) dans le MPS. Le dernier problème est la calibration des réalisations de faciès par MPS à des données dynamiques. Bien que le premier problème soit particulier au MPS par morceaux les deux autres sont communs à toutes les variantes de MPS ainsi qu’aux autres méthodes de modélisation des faciès. Dans une simulation MPS de variables catégoriques les données exactes trouvées dans le voisinage de recherche du point à simuler souvent ne correspondent à aucun des patrons disponibles dans l’image d’entrainement (TI). La solution habituellement utilisée est alors d’ignorer les points du voisinage les plus éloignés jusqu’à ce que le patron soit retrouvé dans la TI. Nous proposons plutôt l’utilisation de TI alternatives (ATI) permettant d’enrichir la base de données des patrons. Les ATIs sont obtenues par simulation non-conditionnelle (MPS par morceaux) à partir de la TI originale (OTI). Parmi toutes les ATI générées, certaines seulement sont sélectionnées en fonction des structures observées et des statistiques présentes dans ces ATI par rapport aux statistiques et aux structures des OTI. On vérifie également que chaque ATI apporte suffisamment de patrons présents dans les données exactes observées. Les ATIs qui ne sont pas assez riches en patrons observés ou qui ne sont pas statistiquement similaires à l’OTI, ou qui ont un contenu structurel différent de l’OTI sont rejetées. Les ATIs sélectionnées et l’OTI sont ensuite transmises à la boucle principale de simulation. Le nombre et la taille des ATIs sélectionnées peuvent être aussi grands que souhaité pourvu que les temps de calcul demeurent réalistes. Nous avons testé l’approche sur plusieurs TI différentes, catégoriques et continues, en 2D et en 3D. Nos résultats montrent que l’utilisation des ATIs améliore le conditionnement aux données exactes, améliore la reproduction de la texture des TI et permet de simuler sur de grandes grilles même à partir de petites OTI----------ABSTRACT In this dissertation, we present three methodologies to correct three problems observed in geostatistical simulations based on multiple-point statistics or MPS. The first problem is the conditioning to hard data of patch-based algorithms. The second problem is the efficient use of auxiliary data in patch-based MPS. The last is the calibration of facies realizations to dynamic data. The first problem is particular to patch-based MPS while the second and third are common between not only MPS approaches but also other facies modeling methods. In an MPS simulation of categorical variables, hard data found within the search neighbour-hood of simulation point often do not match exactly any of the patterns available in TI. One common solution to this problem is to drop out farther nodes until a matching pattern is found in TI. We propose instead using Alternative TIs (ATI) to enrich the pattern database. ATIs are mainly unconditional patch-based simulations based on original TI (OTI). Among the ATIs generated, some are selected based on the structures observed and their statistical features (histogram and variogram) compared with those of OTI. Their pattern databases are examined for the frequency of matching patterns with existing hard data configurations in simulation grid. ATIs that are not rich enough (as measured by number of matches for the hard data), not statistically similar to OTI, or with different structural content from OTI are discarded. The selected ATIs and OTI then are passed onto the main simulation loop. ATIs can be considered of any size and number as long as they are not computationally prohibitive for MPS simulation. We have tested the idea over several 2D and 3D TIs for categorical and continuous variables. Our test results show that using ATIs enhances the conditioning capa-bilities, improves the texture reproduction, and allows simulating over large grids even using much smaller OTIs

Application of simulation techniques for modelling uncertainty associated with gold mineralisation

The current research investigates applicability of stochastic approach to simulation of gold distribution to assess uncertainty of the associated mineralisation and proposes a practical workflow to be used in future for similar problems. Two different techniques are explored in the research: Direct Sampling multi-point simulation algorithm is used for generating realisations of lithologies hosting the gold mineralisation, Sequential Gaussian Simulation is applied to generate multiple realisations of gold within them. A number of parameters in the Direct Sampling algorithm are investigated to arrive at good reproducibility of the patterns found in the training image. The findings arrived at are aimed to help when undertaking simulation in future and choosing appropriate parameters. The resulting realisations are analysed for assessment of combined uncertainty in the lithology and gold mineralisation. Different assessment criteria are demonstrated to visualise and analyse uncertainty. Block scaling to a panel size resolution is carried out to compare the results of the stochastic modelling to a kriged model and assess global uncertainty which stems from this analysis. A practical workflow has been reached as a result of the research. The approach confirms usefulness of the simulation in the estimation of uncertainty and provides some practical considerations in usage of Direct Sampling method which can be applied to other MPS algorithms with further improvements

Mapping local density of young Eucalyptus plantations by individual tree detection in high spatial resolution satellite images

International audienceLocal tree density may vary in young Eucalyptus plantations under the effects of environmental conditions or inadequate management, and these variations need to be mapped over large areas as they have a significant impact on the final biomass harvested. High spatial resolution optical satellite images have the potential to provide crucial information on tree density at an affordable cost for forest management. Here, we test the capacity of this promising technique to map the local density of young and small Eucalyptus trees in a large plantation in Brazil. We use three Worldview panchromatic images acquired at a 50 cm resolution on different dates corresponding to trees aged 6, 9 and 13 months and define an overall accuracy index to evaluate the quality of the detection results. The best agreement between the local densities obtained by visual detection and by marked point process modeling was found at 9 months, with only small omission and commission errors and a stable 4% underestimation of the number of trees across the density gradient. We validated the capability of the MPP approach to detect trees aged 9 months by making a comparison with local densities recorded on 112 plots of ~590 m² and ranging between 1360 and 1700 trees per hectare. We obtained a good correlation (r²=0.88) with a root mean square error of 31 trees/ha. We generalized detection by computing a consistent map over the whole plantation. Our results showed that local tree density was not uniformly distributed even in a well-controlled intensively managed Eucalyptus plantation and therefore needed to be monitored and mapped. Use of the marked point process approach is then discussed with respect to stand characteristics (canopy closure), acquisition dates and recommendations for algorithm parameterization