Untangling perceptual memory: hysteresis and adaptation map into separate cortical networks

Perception is an active inferential process in which prior knowledge is combined with sensory input, the result of which determines the contents of awareness. Accordingly, previous experience is known to help the brain “decide” what to perceive. However, a critical aspect that has not been addressed is that previous experience can exert 2 opposing effects on perception: An attractive effect, sensitizing the brain to perceive the same again (hysteresis), or a repulsive effect, making it more likely to perceive something else (adaptation). We used functional magnetic resonance imaging and modeling to elucidate how the brain entertains these 2 opposing processes, and what determines the direction of such experience-dependent perceptual effects. We found that although affecting our perception concurrently, hysteresis and adaptation map into distinct cortical networks: a widespread network of higher-order visual and fronto-parietal areas was involved in perceptual stabilization, while adaptation was confined to early visual areas. This areal and hierarchical segregation may explain how the brain maintains the balance between exploiting redundancies and staying sensitive to new information. We provide a Bayesian model that accounts for the coexistence of hysteresis and adaptation by separating their causes into 2 distinct terms: Hysteresis alters the prior, whereas adaptation changes the sensory evidence (the likelihood function)

Perceptual organization and consciousness

With chapter written by leading researchers in the field, this is the state-of-the-art reference work on this topic, and will be so for many years to come

Investigating holistic face processing within and outside of face-responsive brain regions

It has been shown that human faces are processed holistically (i.e. as indecomposable wholes, rather than by their component parts) and this holistic face processing is linked to brain activity in face-responsive brain regions. Although several brain regions outside of the face-responsive network are also sensitive to relational processing and perceptual grouping, whether these non-face-responsive regions contribute to holistic processing remains unclear. Here, we investigated holistic face processing in the composite face paradigm both within and outside of face-responsive brain regions. We recorded participants’ brain activity using fMRI while they performed a composite face task. Behavioural results indicate that participants tend to judge the same top face halves as different when they are aligned with different bottom face halves but not when they are misaligned, demonstrating a composite face effect. Neuroimaging results revealed significant differences in responses to aligned and misaligned faces in the lateral occipital complex (LOC), and trends in the anterior part of the fusiform face area (FFA2) and transverse occipital sulcus (TOS), suggesting that these regions are sensitive to holistic versus part-based face processing. Furthermore, the retrosplenial cortex (RSC) and the parahippocampal place area (PPA) showed a pattern of neural activity consistent with a holistic representation of face identity, which also correlated with the strength of the behavioural composite face effect. These results suggest that neural activity in brain regions both within and outside of the face-responsive network contributes to the composite-face effect

Traditional and new principles of perceptual grouping

Perceptual grouping refers to the process of determining which regions and parts of the visual scene belong together as parts of higher order perceptual units such as objects or patterns. In the early 20th century, Gestalt psychologists identified a set of classic grouping principles which specified how some image features lead to grouping between elements given that all other factors were held constant. Modern vision scientists have expanded this list to cover a wide range of image features but have also expanded the importance of learning and other non-image factors. Unlike early Gestalt accounts which were based largely on visual demonstrations, modern theories are often explicitly quantitative and involve detailed models of how various image features modulate grouping. Work has also been done to understand the rules by which different grouping principles integrate to form a final percept. This chapter gives an overview of the classic principles, modern developments in understanding them, and new principles and the evidence for them. There is also discussion of some of the larger theoretical issues about grouping such as at what stage of visual processing it occurs and what types of neural mechanisms may implement grouping principles

Contour Integration over Time: Psychophysical and fMRI Evidence.

The brain integrates discrete but collinear stimuli to perceive global contours. Previous contour integration (CI) studies mainly focus on integration over space, and CI is attributed to either V1 long-range connections or contour processing in high-visual areas that top-down modulate V1 responses. Here, we show that CI also occurs over time in a design that minimizes the roles of V1 long-range interactions. We use tilted contours embedded in random orientation noise and moving horizontally behind a fixed vertical slit. Individual contour elements traveling up/down within the slit would be encoded over time by parallel, rather than aligned, V1 neurons. However, we find robust contour detection even when the slit permits only one viewable contour element. Similar to CI over space, CI over time also obeys the rule of collinearity. fMRI evidence shows that while CI over space engages visual areas as early as V1, CI over time mainly engages higher dorsal and ventral visual areas involved in shape processing, as well as posterior parietal regions involved in visual memory that can represent the orientation of temporally integrated contours. These results suggest at least partially dissociable mechanisms for implementing the Gestalt rule of continuity in CI over space and time.European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) (Grant ID: 255577), Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (Grant IDs: D52199X , E027436), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant IDs: 31230030, 31571160, 91432102

Contour Integration over Time: Psychophysical and fMRI Evidence.

The brain integrates discrete but collinear stimuli to perceive global contours. Previous contour integration (CI) studies mainly focus on integration over space, and CI is attributed to either V1 long-range connections or contour processing in high-visual areas that top-down modulate V1 responses. Here, we show that CI also occurs over time in a design that minimizes the roles of V1 long-range interactions. We use tilted contours embedded in random orientation noise and moving horizontally behind a fixed vertical slit. Individual contour elements traveling up/down within the slit would be encoded over time by parallel, rather than aligned, V1 neurons. However, we find robust contour detection even when the slit permits only one viewable contour element. Similar to CI over space, CI over time also obeys the rule of collinearity. fMRI evidence shows that while CI over space engages visual areas as early as V1, CI over time mainly engages higher dorsal and ventral visual areas involved in shape processing, as well as posterior parietal regions involved in visual memory that can represent the orientation of temporally integrated contours. These results suggest at least partially dissociable mechanisms for implementing the Gestalt rule of continuity in CI over space and time

The neural coding of properties shared by faces, bodies and objects

Previous studies have identified relatively separated regions of the brain that respond strongly when participants view images of either faces, bodies or objects. The aim of this thesis was to investigate how and where in the brain shared properties of faces, bodies and objects are processed. We selected three properties that are shared by faces and bodies, shared categories (sex and weight), shared identity and shared orientation (i.e. facing direction). We also investigated one property shared by faces and objects, the tendency to process a face or object as a whole rather than by its parts, which is known as holistic processing. We hypothesized that these shared properties might be encoded separately for faces, bodies and objects in the previously defined domain-specific regions, or alternatively that they might be encoded in an overlapping or shared code in those or other regions. In all of studies in this thesis, we used fMRI to record the brain activity of participants viewing images of faces and bodies or objects that showed differences in the shared properties of interest. We then investigated the neural responses these stimuli elicited in a variety of specifically localized brain regions responsive to faces, bodies or objects, as well as across the whole-brain. Our results showed evidence for a mix of overlapping coding, shared coding and domain-specific coding, depending on the particular property and the level of abstraction of its neural coding. We found we could decode face and body categories, identities and orientations from both face- and body-responsive regions showing that these properties are encoded in overlapping brain regions. We also found that non-domain specific brain regions are involved in holistic face processing. We identified shared coding of orientation and weight in the occipital cortex and shared coding of identity in the early visual cortex, right inferior occipital cortex, right parahippocampal cortex and right superior parietal cortex, demonstrating that a variety of brain regions combine face and body information into a common code. In contrast to these findings, we found evidence that high-level visual transformations may be predominantly processed in domain-specific regions, as we could most consistently decode body categories across image-size and body identity across viewpoint from body-responsive regions. In conclusion, this thesis furthers our understanding of the neural coding of face, body and object properties and gives new insights into the functional organisation of occipitotemporal cortex

High-frequency neural oscillations and visual processing deficits in schizophrenia

Visual information is fundamental to how we understand our environment, make predictions, and interact with others. Recent research has underscored the importance of visuo-perceptual dysfunctions for cognitive deficits and pathophysiological processes in schizophrenia. In the current paper, we review evidence for the relevance of high frequency (beta/gamma) oscillations towards visuo-perceptual dysfunctions in schizophrenia. In the first part of the paper, we examine the relationship between beta/gamma band oscillations and visual processing during normal brain functioning. We then summarize EEG/MEG-studies which demonstrate reduced amplitude and synchrony of high-frequency activity during visual stimulation in schizophrenia. In the final part of the paper, we identify neurobiological correlates as well as offer perspectives for future research to stimulate further inquiry into the role of high-frequency oscillations in visual processing impairments in the disorder

Neuronale Synchronisation während perzeptueller Organisation in Schizophrenie-Patienten

Current theories of schizophrenia suggest that the pathophysiology of the disorder may be the result of a deficit in the coordination of neural activity within and between areas of the brain, which may lead to impairments in basic cognitive functions such as contextual disambiguation and dynamic grouping (Phillips and Silverstein, 2003). This notion has been supported by recent studies showing that patients with schizophrenia are characterized by reduced synchronous, oscillatory activity in the gamma-frequency band during sensory processing (Spencer et al. 2003, Green et al. 2003, Wynn et al. 2005). However, it is currently unclear to what extent high-frequency gamma-band oscillations (> 60 Hz) contribute to impaired neural synchronization as research has so far focussed on gamma-band oscillations between 30 and 60 Hz. In addition, it is not known whether deficits in high-frequency oscillations are already present at the onset of the disorder and to what extent reductions may be related to the confounding influence of antipsychotic medication. Finally, the neural generators underlying impairments in synchronous oscillatory activity in schizophrenia have not been investigated yet. To address these questions, we recorded MEG activity during a visual closure task (Mooney faces task) in medicated chronic schizophrenia patients, drug-naive first-episode schizophrenia patients and healthy controls. MEG data were analysed for spectral power between 25 and 150 Hz, and beamforming techniques were used to localize the sources of oscillatory gamma-band activity. In healthy controls, we observed that the processing of Mooney faces was associated with sustained high-frequency gamma-band activity (> 60 Hz). A time-resolved analysis of the neural generators underlying perceptual closure revealed a network of distributed sources in occipito-temporal, parietal and frontal regions, which were differentially activated during specific time intervals. In chronic schizophrenia patients, we found a pronounced reduction of high-frequency gamma-band oscillatory activity that was accompanied by an impairment in perceptual organization and involved reduced source power in various brain regions associated with perceptual closure. First-episode patients were also characterized by a deficit in high-frequency gamma-band activity and reductions of source power in multiple areas; these impairments, however, were less pronounced than in chronic patients. Regarding behavioral performance, first-episode patients were not impaired in their ability to detect Mooney faces, but exhibited a loss in specificity of face detection. In conclusion, our results suggest that schizophrenia is associated with a widespread reduction in high-frequency oscillations that indicate local network abnormalities. These dysfunctions are independent of medication status and already present at illness onset, suggesting a possible progressive deficit during the course of the disorder.Aktuelle Theorien gehen davon aus, dass die Pathophysiologie der Schizophrenie auf eine Störung in der Koordination neuronaler Prozesse zurückzuführen ist, welche zu einer Beeinträchtigung in der Integration von Informationen führt und sich in Defiziten bei frühen Wahrnehmungsprozessen und höheren kognitiven Funktionen widerspiegelt. Diese Hypothese wird durch eine Reihe von Studien gestützt, die eine Reduktion oszillatorischer Aktivität im Beta- und Gamma-Frequenzband im Elektroenzephalogramm während visueller Wahrnehmungsprozesse bei Patienten mit Schizophrenie nachweisen konnten. Die Bedeutung von hochfrequenten Gamma-Band Oszillationen (> 60 Hz) für das Verständnis von perzeptuellen Dysfunktionen bei Patienten mit Schizophrenie ist jedoch bislang wenig erforscht. Zudem ist unklar, ob und in welchem Umfang eine Veränderung oszillatorischer Aktivität bereits zu Beginn der Erkrankung und ohne den Einfluss von antipsychotischen Medikamenten vorhanden ist. Des Weiteren gibt es bislang keine Befunde zu den neuronalen Quellen, die den Defiziten oszillatorischer Aktivität bei Schizophrenie-Patienten zugrunde liegen. Um diese Fragen zu untersuchen, wurden im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation drei Studien durchgeführt, in denen die Hirnaktivität während einer visuellen Gestaltaufgabe (Mooney faces-Aufgabe) bei chronischen medizierten Schizophrenie-Patienten, ersterkrankten nicht-medizierten Schizophrenie-Patienten sowie bei gesunden Kontrollprobanden mittels Magnetoenzephalographie (MEG) gemessen wurde. Die Auswertung der MEG-Daten beinhaltete auf der Sensoren-Ebene eine Auswertung der spektralen Power zwischen 25 und 150 Hz und auf der Quellen-Ebene eine Rekonstruktion der Generatoren oszillatorischer Aktivität mit Hilfe von Beamforming-Techniken. Die Hauptbefunde lassen sich wie folgt zusammenfassen: Das neuronale Netzwerk perzeptueller Organisation bei Mooney faces zeigte eine ausgeprägte oszillatorische Aktivität im hochfrequenten Gamma-Band (> 60 Hz) in gesunden Kontrollprobanden und umfasste okzipito-temporale, parietale und frontale Areale, die zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten der Informationsverarbeitung aktiviert wurden. Unsere Ergebnisse lassen vermuten, dass perzeptuelle Organisationsprozesse bei Mooney faces auf einer frühen Interaktion zwischen Arealen beruhen, die mit der Verarbeitung von Schattierungsreizen zusammenhängen, gesichtsspezifischen Arealen, und Arealen, die mit dem Abruf von Informationen aus dem Langzeitgedächtnis in Verbindung stehen. Im Vergleich zu den Kontrollprobanden zeigten chronische Schizophrenie-Patienten ein deutliches Defizit in der hochfrequenten (60 – 120 Hz) Gamma-Band Power, welches mit reduzierten Detektionsraten bei der Mooney faces-Aufgabe und mit verringerten Aktivierungen in den für perzeptuelle Organisationsprozesse relevanten Arealen einherging. Ersterkrankte nicht-medizierte Schizophrenie-Patienten zeigten ebenfalls eine Reduktion hochfrequenter Gamma-Band Power in verschiedenen Hirnarealen. Dieses Defizit war jedoch weniger stark ausgeprägt als in den chronischen Schizophrenie-Patienten. Im Gegensatz zu den chronischen Patienten zeigten die ersterkrankten Patienten keine Beeinträchtigung bei der Detektion von Gesichtern in aufrecht präsentierten Mooney face Stimuli; jedoch wiesen sie ein Defizit in der Diskrimination zwischen Gesichtern und Nicht-Gesichtern auf. Unsere Befunde deuten darauf hin, dass bei Patienten mit Schizophrenie ausgeprägte Defizite in lokalen Synchronisationsprozessen vorliegen, welche mit perzeptuellen Dysfunktionen einhergehen. Die beeinträchtigte Koordination neuronaler Aktivität könnte auf Veränderungen in GABAergen und glutamatergen Neurotransmittersystemen bei Schizophrenie-Patienten zurückzuführen sein. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen weiterhin, dass Beeinträchtigungen neuronaler Synchronisation bereits zu Beginn der Erkrankung und ohne den Einfluss von antipsychotischer Medikation vorhanden sind. Die stärkere Beeinträchtigung in den chronischen im Vergleich zu den ersterkrankten Patienten deutet auf einen progressiven Verlauf der Beeinträchtigung oszillatorischer Aktivität bei Schizophrenie-Patienten hin

Neuronal and behavioral mechanisms of Gestalt perception

Principles of Gestalt perception have fundamentally influenced our understanding of visual cognition. In the past century, Gestalt psychologists postulated that the human brain determines single elements with common features as a single entity rather than a sum of separate parts. The importance of Gestalt perception is emphasized by the neuropsychological syndrome simultanagnosia. Patients suffering from this condition have lost the ability to integrate single elements into a superior entity. Simultanagnosia is usually associated with bilateral posterior temporo-parietal brain lesions but the exact neuroanatomy of global Gestalt perception and functions of areas already associated with this perceptual quality are still a matter of lively debates. Further, not much is known about behavioral characteristics of wellexplored perceptual processes, like visual constancy, in the context of Gestalt perception. The present work aimed at investigating neuronal and behavioral properties of Gestalt perception applying psychophysical methods and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). In previous neuroimaging studies the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) was identified as a crucial brain structure involved in Gestalt perception. However, its specific role in Gestalt perception is still unclear. The functions attributed to this brain region range from attentional selection between the local and the global level of hierarchically organized stimuli to mere perceptual mechanisms of global processing. The neuroimaging studies included into this work explore mainly TPJ related perceptual functions. In the first study, neuronal properties of TPJ in Gestalt perception were investigated. Based on observations in simultanagnosia patients that are able to perceive familiar complex stimulus arrangements but fail in recognition of novel stimulus configurations, it was hypothesized that TPJ areas mainly contribute to processing of novel object arrangements. A training study was conducted where subjects had to learn the perception of complex stimulus arrangements in order to examine this hypothesis. Neuronal processes of Gestalt perception in bilateral TPJ regions were assessed pre- and posttraining. It was demonstrated that an anterior right hemispheric TPJ region responded to perceptual training with global stimuli. The results indicated fundamentally changed TPJ contributions with increasing familiarity suggesting a different strategy of the brain for processing of highly familiar object arrangements. In the second study, involvements of bilateral TPJ areas in global processing were investigated with an approach taking advantage of visual expertise. During presentation of specific chess arrangements TPJ signals of chess experts and novices were examined. As a consequence, it was possible to compare neuronal TPJ correlates for holistic perception in experts and serial perceptual strategies in novices. The result showed higher signals in bilateral TPJ areas for chess experts compared to novices while inspecting specific chess configurations. With this method a lot of the typical stimulus confounds in research about Gestalt perception, like size differences or differences in spatial frequencies between global/local stimulus levels, were avoided. Moreover, the nature of the stimuli and experimental tasks argues for a TPJ involvement during perception rather than for functions of attentional selection. In the third study perceptual properties of visual size constancy were investigated in the context of Gestalt perception. While size constancy is a well-known phenomenon for regular objects this visual mechanism has not been investigated for stimuli forming a global Gestalt. Therefore, the perceptual performance for a global stimulus arrangement placed on different locations of a visual scene containing a 3D perspective was tested. For the first time, influences of size constancy were demonstrated also for global stimuli. Effects of size constancy on Gestalt perception suggest a perceptual hierarchy of global scenes even on stimuli that have to be integrated themselves. Taken together the results show that the TPJ is involved in mere perceptual processes of Gestalt perception and that an anterior section of this structure has a specific role in processing of novel object arrangements. It was also demonstrated that Gestalt perception itself underlies visual top-down processes of visual constancy suggesting a superior role of global scene processing influencing even local grouping processes.Zu Beginn des letzten Jahrhunderts formulierte die Gestaltpsychologie bestimmte Gesetzmäßigkeiten, die der menschlichen Wahrnehmung zu Grunde liegen. Die sog. Gestaltgesetzte besagen, dass einzelne Elemente mit systematischen Gemeinsamkeiten eher als ganzheitliche Entität aufgefasst werden denn als Summe einzelner Teile. Die besondere Bedeutung der Gestaltwahrnehmung wird durch das neuropsychologische Störungsbild Simultanagnosie deutlich. Patienten, die an dieser Störung leiden, haben die Fähigkeit einzelne Elemente zu einer übergeordneten Einheit zu verbinden verloren. Normalerweise treten Symptome der Simultanagnosie nach bilateralen temporo-parietalen Gehirnläsionen auf. Die genaue Neuroanatomie der Gestaltwahrnehmung und klar definierte Funktionen von Gehirnarealen, die bereits mit globaler Wahrnehmung in Verbindung gebracht werden konnten, sind jedoch noch nicht eindeutig definiert. Darüber hinaus ist auf Verhaltensebene wenig über Funktionen der visuellen Wahrnehmung, z.B. hinsichtlich des Phänomens der Größenkonstanz, im Zusammenhang mit Gestaltwahrnehmung bekannt. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Erforschung neuronaler und behavioraler Mechanismen der Gestaltwahrnehmung mit Hilfe psychophysischer und bildgebender Methoden. In bisherigen Bildgebungsstudien konnte die temporo-parietale Übergangsregion (temporo-parietal junction, TPJ) als neuronales Korrelat der Gestaltwahrnehmung identifiziert werden. Die genaue Bedeutung dieser Hirnregion für die Gestaltwahrnehmung ist jedoch noch unklar, wobei bisher vor allem Aufmerksamkeits- und reine Wahrnehmungsfunktionen damit in Verbindung gebracht werden konnten. Die Bildgebungsstudien dieser Arbeit konzentrieren sich daher vornehmlich auf perzeptuelle Funktionen bilateraler TPJ-Areale. In der ersten Studie dieser Arbeit wurden spezifische Eigenschaften der temporo-parietalen Übergangsregion für die Gestaltwahrnehmung untersucht. Die Motivation für diese Studie wurde von Beobachtungen bei Simultanagnosie-Patienten abgeleitet, die vor allem Schwierigkeiten bei der Verarbeitung neuartiger komplexer Reizanordnungen haben, aber geläufige komplexe visuelle Inhalte erkennen können. Daher wurde die Hypothese untersucht, dass bilaterale TPJ-Regionen hauptsächlich in die Verarbeitung neuartiger komplexer Strukturen involviert sind. Zur Untersuchung dieser Hypothese wurde eine Lernstudie durchgeführt. Im Rahmen dieser Studie wurde die Wahrnehmung für komplexe Gestalt-Stimuli trainiert und die neuronalen Mechanismen der Gestaltwahrnehmung vor und nach dem Training mittels funktionaler Magnet Resonanztomographie (fMRT) gemessen. Es zeigte sich, dass hauptsächlich das anteriore rechtshemisphärische TPJ-Areal signifikant auf Wahrnehmungstraining reagierte. Dieses Ergebnis bestätigte die Hypothese, dass TPJ hauptsächlich für die Verarbeitung neuartiger Objekt-Arrangements zuständig ist bzw. komplexe Stimuli mit hohem Bekanntheitsgrad über andere neuronale Kanäle verarbeitet werden. In der zweiten Studie wurde der Beitrag bilateraler TPJ-Areale auf die Gestaltwahrnehmung durch die Untersuchung von Schach-Experten realisiert. Dabei wurden TPJ-Signale von Schach-Experten und Novizen bei der Betrachtung komplexer Schach-Arrangements mittels fMRT gemessen. Auf diese Weise war es möglich neuronale TPJ-Aktivierungen während einer ganzheitlichen Wahrnehmung in Experten und einer seriellen Strategie in Novizen zu vergleichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten stärkere Signale in bilateralen TPJ-Regionen für Experten im Vergleich zu Novizen während der Betrachtung komplexer Schach-Arrangements. Mit Hilfe dieses Ansatzes konnten einige Störvariablen, die bei der Erforschung der Gestaltwahrnehmung auftreten, wie z.B. Unterschiede zwischen lokalen und globalen Stimuli hinsichtlich Größe oder räumlicher Frequenz, umgangen werden. Darüber hinaus weisen der Aufbau der Stimuli und die verwendeten Testparadigmen auf TPJ-Einflüsse während der perzeptuellen Verarbeitung komplexer Stimuli hin und sprechen gegen TPJ-gesteuerte Aufmerksamkeitsmechanismen der perzeptuellen Auswahl von globalen oder lokalen Ebenen. Die dritte Studie untersuchte perzeptuelle Eigenschaften der Größenkonstanz im Kontext der Gestaltwahrnehmung. Während die Größenkonstanz ein gut erforschtes Phänomen im Rahmen der Objektwahrnehmung darstellt, ist bisher nicht bekannt, ob dieser visuelle Mechanismus auch globale Gestalt-Stimuli betrifft. Diese Fragestellung wurde durch ein Experiment, in dem globale Gestalt-Stimuli in einer visuellen Szene mit 3D-Perspektive platziert wurden, untersucht. Es zeigte sich, dass auch die Verarbeitung globaler Stimuli Mechanismen der Größenkonstanz unterliegt. Effekte der Größenkonstanz auf die Wahrnehmung globaler Gestalt-Stimuli weisen auf eine Hierarchie der visuellen Verarbeitung hin, der zufolge eine übergeordnete globale Szene auch visuelle Inhalte beeinflusst, die selbst der Gestaltwahrnehmung unterliegen. Zusammenfassend zeigen die dargestellten Arbeiten, dass das TPJ-Areal hauptsächlich an der perzeptuellen Verarbeitung komplexer visueller Reizanordnungen beteiligt ist und dabei speziell für neuartige Reizkonfigurationen zuständig ist. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass Gestaltwahrnehmung selbst Top-down-Prozessen der visuellen Größenkonstanz unterliegt und die globale Wahrnehmung einer visuellen Szene lokale Prozesse der Gestaltwahrnehmung beeinflussen kann