An adaptive grid refinement strategy for the simulation of negative streamers

The evolution of negative streamers during electric breakdown of a non-attaching gas can be described by a two-fluid model for electrons and positive ions. It consists of continuity equations for the charged particles including drift, diffusion and reaction in the local electric field, coupled to the Poisson equation for the electric potential. The model generates field enhancement and steep propagating ionization fronts at the tip of growing ionized filaments. An adaptive grid refinement method for the simulation of these structures is presented. It uses finite volume spatial discretizations and explicit time stepping, which allows the decoupling of the grids for the continuity equations from those for the Poisson equation. Standard refinement methods in which the refinement criterion is based on local error monitors fail due to the pulled character of the streamer front that propagates into a linearly unstable state. We present a refinement method which deals with all these features. Tests on one-dimensional streamer fronts as well as on three-dimensional streamers with cylindrical symmetry (hence effectively 2D for numerical purposes) are carried out successfully. Results on fine grids are presented, they show that such an adaptive grid method is needed to capture the streamer characteristics well. This refinement strategy enables us to adequately compute negative streamers in pure gases in the parameter regime where a physical instability appears: branching streamers.Comment: 46 pages, 19 figures, to appear in J. Comp. Phy

Three basic issues concerning interface dynamics in nonequilibrium pattern formation

These are lecture notes of a course given at the 9th International Summer School on Fundamental Problems in Statistical Mechanics, held in Altenberg, Germany, in August 1997. In these notes, we discuss at an elementary level three themes concerning interface dynamics that play a role in pattern forming systems: (i) We briefly review three examples of systems in which the normal growth velocity is proportional to the gradient of a bulk field which itself obeys a Laplace or diffusion type of equation (solidification, viscous fingers and streamers), and then discuss why the Mullins-Sekerka instability is common to all such gradient systems. (ii) Secondly, we discuss how underlying an effective interface description of systems with smooth fronts or transition zones, is the assumption that the relaxation time of the appropriate order parameter field(s) in the front region is much smaller than the time scale of the evolution of interfacial patterns. Using standard arguments we illustrate that this is generally so for fronts that separate two (meta)stable phases: in such cases, the relaxation is typically exponential, and the relaxation time in the usual models goes to zero in the limit in which the front width vanishes. (iii) We finally summarize recent results that show that so-called ``pulled'' or ``linear marginal stability'' fronts which propagate into unstable states have a very slow universal power law relaxation. This slow relaxation makes the usual ``moving boundary'' or ``effective interface'' approximation for problems with thin fronts, like streamers, impossible.Comment: 48 pages, TeX with elsart style file (included), 9 figure

Deviations from the local field approximation in negative streamer heads

Negative streamer ionization fronts in nitrogen under normal conditions are investigated both in a particle model and in a fluid model in local field approximation. The parameter functions for the fluid model are derived from swarm experiments in the particle model. The front structure on the inner scale is investigated in a 1D setting, allowing reasonable run-time and memory consumption and high numerical accuracy without introducing super-particles. If the reduced electric field immediately before the front is >= 50kV/(cm bar), solutions of fluid and particle model agree very well. If the field increases up to 200kV/(cm bar), the solutions of particle and fluid model deviate, in particular, the ionization level behind the front becomes up to 60% higher in the particle model while the velocity is rather insensitive. Particle and fluid model deviate because electrons with high energies do not yet fully run away from the front, but are somewhat ahead. This leads to increasing ionization rates in the particle model at the very tip of the front. The energy overshoot of electrons in the leading edge of the front actually agrees quantitatively with the energy overshoot in the leading edge of an electron swarm or avalanche in the same electric field.Comment: The paper has 17 pages, including 15 figures and 3 table

A moving boundary model motivated by electric breakdown: II. Initial value problem

An interfacial approximation of the streamer stage in the evolution of sparks and lightning can be formulated as a Laplacian growth model regularized by a 'kinetic undercooling' boundary condition. Using this model we study both the linearized and the full nonlinear evolution of small perturbations of a uniformly translating circle. Within the linear approximation analytical and numerical results show that perturbations are advected to the back of the circle, where they decay. An initially analytic interface stays analytic for all finite times, but singularities from outside the physical region approach the interface for $t\to\infty$, which results in some anomalous relaxation at the back of the circle. For the nonlinear evolution numerical results indicate that the circle is the asymptotic attractor for small perturbations, but larger perturbations may lead to branching. We also present results for more general initial shapes, which demonstrate that regularization by kinetic undercooling cannot guarantee smooth interfaces globally in time.Comment: 44 pages, 18 figures, paper submitted to Physica

Evolution of Negative Streamers in Nitrogen: a Numerical Investigation on Adaptive Grids

Plasmas are ionized media, occupying 99% of the universe. Common examples of plasmas are the sun, which is a high-temperature plasma, and neon lights, which are low-temperature plasmas. A high-temperature plasma is at thermal equilibrium, and is driven by a high pressure and temperature of the medium. A low-temperature plasma, on the other hand, is far from equilibrium, and the ionization is generated by electric or electromagnetic fields. Streamers are transient, filamentary, low-temperature plasma channels which, under influence of the self-enhanced electric field at their tip, propagate rapidly into a non- or weakly ionized medium. They are widely used in industry, e.g. for the treatment of exhaust gasses, cleaning of polluted water, and in aerospatial engineering. Streamers are also found in nature, where they play a role in creating the path of lightning. Recent observations showed the existence of sprites, which are very large discharge structures in the higher parts of the atmosphere, composed of a multitude of streamers. One distinguishes streamers according to their polarity: in positive or cathode-directed streamers, positive space charges propagate in the direction of the electric field. In negative or anode directed streamers, on the other hand, it is negative net charge that propagates in the direction of the electron drift, i.e. opposite to the electric field. Experiments show that positive streamers emerge more easily from a point or a wire electrode than negative ones, which require a much higher voltage to emerge. Consequently, industrial applications mainly focus on the use of positive streamers. On the other hand, when streamers emerge in free space from ionization avalanches, they can have both a positive and a negative end. Lightning as well as sprite discharges are examples of such kind of double-ended discharges. Up to now, most experimental and theoretical efforts have been devoted to positive streamers in air because of their applications. However, the cross-sections for photoionization, which is required for the propagation of positive streamers, are not well-known. To define a clear physical signature, it is therefore desirable to study a situation rather independent of photoionization: negative streamers in pure gases. High-voltage experiments to obtain such streamers are currently being set up at the Eindhoven University of Technology in collaboration with the research theme "Nonlinear Dynamics and Complex Systems" at the national research institute for Mathematics and Computer Science (CWI) in Amsterdam, where numerical and analytical research is carried out. This thesis was written at CWI and is concerned with a numerical method for the simulation of negative streamers, and also with an analytical criterion for the emergence of such streamers. The simulation of streamers represents a great computational challenge. First, multiple spatial scales are involved: the non-ionized region into which the streamer propagates is orders of magnitude larger than the ionized channel, which in turn is much larger than the small active region at the streamer tip, which again has an inner layered structure. Secondly, the spatial density gradients in the tip of the streamer grow during the propagation, requiring an increasing accuracy of the numerical method. Finally, another specific difficulty comes from the unstable nature of streamers: any ionized perturbation in the non-ionized, high-field region just ahead of the streamer tip will grow. The dynamics of the streamers are set in this unstable region, the leading edge, where the densities are very low and the density gradients therefore small. The ionization front is pulled into the non-ionized region by the leading edge, which is a main reason for the failure of standard refinement strategies to describe accurately the streamer dynamics. We have developed a numerical algorithm that copes in an efficient way with the inherent computational difficulties. It computes the evolution of the streamer in a fluid approximation. The model consists of continuity equations for the charged particles, which, in pure nitrogen, are electrons and positive ions. These continuity equations tell us that the temporal change of the charged particles is set by their drift, diffusion, and ionization sources and sinks. The drift velocity of the particles as well as the ionization rate depend on the local electric field, which has to be determined through the so-called Poisson equation for the electric potential, whose source term is given by the space charge. This model is nonlinear because the particle motion and generation depend on the field while the field depends on the particle densities. For negative streamers in nitrogen, it is admissible to neglect ionization sources like photoionization, and the only source of charged particles is then ionization by impact of sufficiently energetic electrons with neutral particles. These mechanisms - namely the drift and impact ionization in the local electric field, the diffusion and the space charge effects - in a continuum approximation constitute the so-called minimal streamer model, which is analyzed in this thesis. The algorithm is implemented for a three-dimensional system with cylindrical symmetry, which reduces the computations effectively to two spatial dimensions. The algorithm is based on a decoupling of the numerical grids for the continuity equations on the one hand, and that for the Poisson equation on the other hand. The grids are refined, according to error monitors, at each time step, thereby adapting themselves to the solution. The leading edge is explicitly included in the refinement criterion. Successful test are carried out both on planar and curved streamer fronts. This algorithm enables us to explore a new parameter regime. We can now apply large background electric fields, in which spatial gradients become very large, and still resolve the streamer in an accurate manner. It is now also possible to compute the streamer evolution in low fields and large gas gaps. The results of the simulations exhibit some very interesting features in both cases. Following the evolution of streamers emerging from a single electron in a plane-parallel electrode geometry shows that three physical stages are passed. The emergence of a streamer can occur through an electron avalanche, characterized by the absence of space charge effects, and is therefore linear. Once the amount of space charges is sufficiently large to change significantly the background electric field, the phenomenon becomes non-linear, and a streamer emerges. If the distance to the anode is long enough, the streamer eventually becomes unstable and branches. During the avalanche phase, the electrons drift, diffuse and multiply in the uniform background electric field. If the avalanche starts from a single electron and the field is homogeneous, the equation for the electrons has an analytical solution, which can be used to derive analytical expressions for the spatial moments of the ions. This allows us to find an analytical approximation for the electric field, and hence determine when the space charge effects have become so strong, that the transition to a streamer takes place. We have thus derived a criterion for the avalanche to streamer transition, which includes the effect of diffusion. The traditional criterion for the transition, Meek's criterion, postulates that, in a specific gas at a specific pressure, the travel time and distance of the electron avalanche before turning into a streamer only depend on the applied background field. The inclusion of diffusion shows that this is not the case and that diffusion can in fact considerably delay the emergence of a streamer. Once the streamer has emerged, the evolution is nonlinear. At this point our grid refinement strategy provides us with a powerful tool to compute the further streamer propagation. The streamer is characterized by the enhanced conductivity of its body, which is therefore partially shielded from the exterior electric field. This shielding requires a space charge layer at the streamer tip, which in turn enhances the electric field ahead of the tip. The streamer extends in this self-enhanced field. We investigate the evolution and branching of streamers in both cases of overvolted and undervolted gaps. These are distinguished by the ability of the background electric field to provide an electron with a sufficient amount of energy to ionize a neutral atom or molecule when colliding with it. In an overvolted gap, the background electric field is sufficiently high for this to happen, and the streamer penetrates a highly unstable state. Its radius continues to grow up to branching, giving it a conical shape. Moreover, the spatial density gradients become very steep, thereby requiring a very high accuracy from the numerical method. In an undervolted gap, the electrons only multiply in the small region ahead of the streamer where the field is sufficiently enhanced, giving the streamer a more filamentary shape. For a sufficient field enhancement, a sufficient amount of charge in the streamer head is required. The accumulation of charge in the head depends both on the initial distribution of ionization and on the boundary conditions on the electrode. We study different cases and eventually, in all cases, the streamer branches provided the gap is sufficiently long. The branching state of the streamer has not been analyzed much up to now, mainly due to a lack of accurate numerical tools which now have become available through the work presented in this thesis. Indeed, the refinement algorithm enables us to reach the branching state with sufficient numerical accuracy within a reasonable computational time, and more importantly, within the limits of the computational memory. First, we here establish that the time of branching converges for identical initial and boundary conditions when using finer and finer numerical grids. Such tests were out of reach up to now. The convergence of branching times allows us now to derive quantitative predictions under given conditions. We find that the branching times converge for sufficiently fine numerical grids both for the underand the overvolted case. An interesting detail is that in the undervolted case, the branched state is always the same while in the overvolted case, different branched states are reached on different grids after a similar evolution time. This suggests that in the second case, several branched states are accessible from the unstable head state. The outcome of such a nonlinear bifurcation process then will depend on minor details (like the numerical grid) as is well known even to the general public as the unpredictability of "chaos theory". Another reason not to analyze the details of the branched state is the assumed cylindrical symmetry in our calculations. Within the present thesis, the streamer splits not into branches but into concentric rings as the space of linear perturbations has been restricted to cylinder symmetrical ones. When a larger space of linear perturbations is admitted, the branching instability can be expected after a similar time of evolution, but to a different state. The physically relevant question that can be answered with the present analysis is: can we characterize a generic unstable state of the streamer head that leads to branching? This indeed seems to be the case: numerical experiments in a fixed external electric field with a variety of initial ionization distributions and boundary conditions on the electrode always seem to evolve to a very similar state of the streamer head immediately before branching. This particular head state would then be an intermediate at tractor of the dynamics that is followed by branching. However, this hypothesis requires further numerical and analytical studies. There is another insight that can be gained from the present numerical studies, namely a verification of a reduced model for well developed streamers that is currently being studied analytically at CWI. Such a model for moving ionization boundaries consists of several building blocks: 1) The ionization front at the streamer tip propagates with a velocity that is a function of the electric field ahead of it. 2) The width of the space charge layer is a decreasing function of the electric field and saturates at high fields. 3) The conductivity in the interior of the streamer is so high that it approaches Lozansky and Firsov's limit of ideal conductivity. For the dependence of front velocity and width on the electric field, analytical predictions have been derived for planar fronts. Their validity for curved fronts can be tested on the numerical results. Furthermore, analytical results show that a planar front is dynamically unstable and will branch due to a Laplacian instability, while the analysis of curved fronts is underway. The limit of a planar front is never reached in the simulations, but a limit of small curvature where the radius of curvature of the streamer head is much larger than the front width does occur. Numerical studies do reveal for which curvature the Laplacian instability sets in and are therefore complementary to the analytical studies. We conclude that the minimal streamer model analyzed in this thesis already exhibits very complex behavior and is better adapted for explorative systematic studies than a model including many more physical features from the start. The predictions of this model should now be tested on experiments on negative streamers in nitrogen while more features like the less well-known photo-ionization should be included to predict the behavior of streamers in air. Also, the step towards fully three-dimensional simulations should be made

A moving boundary problem motivated by electric breakdown: I. Spectrum of linear perturbations

An interfacial approximation of the streamer stage in the evolution of sparks and lightning can be written as a Laplacian growth model regularized by a `kinetic undercooling' boundary condition. We study the linear stability of uniformly translating circles that solve the problem in two dimensions. In a space of smooth perturbations of the circular shape, the stability operator is found to have a pure point spectrum. Except for the zero eigenvalue for infinitesimal translations, all eigenvalues are shown to have negative real part. Therefore perturbations decay exponentially in time. We calculate the spectrum through a combination of asymptotic and series evaluation. In the limit of vanishing regularization parameter, all eigenvalues are found to approach zero in a singular fashion, and this asymptotic behavior is worked out in detail. A consideration of the eigenfunctions indicates that a strong intermediate growth may occur for generic initial perturbations. Both the linear and the nonlinear initial value problem are considered in a second paper.Comment: 37 pages, 6 figures, revised for Physica

A domain-decomposition method to implement electrostatic free boundary conditions in the radial direction for electric discharges

At high pressure electric discharges typically grow as thin, elongated filaments. In a numerical simulation this large aspect ratio should ideally translate into a narrow, cylindrical computational domain that envelops the discharge as closely as possible. However, the development of the discharge is driven by electrostatic interactions and, if the computational domain is not wide enough, the boundary conditions imposed to the electrostatic potential on the external boundary have a strong effect on the discharge. Most numerical codes for electric discharges circumvent this problem by either using a wide computational domain or by calculating the boundary conditions by integrating the Green's function of an infinite domain. Here we describe an accurate and efficient method to impose free boundary conditions for an elongated electric discharge. To facilitate the use of our method we provide a sample implementation.Comment: 21 pages, 4 figures, a movie and a sample code in python. A new Appendix has been adde

The physics of streamer discharge phenomena

In this review we describe a transient type of gas discharge which is commonly called a streamer discharge, as well as a few related phenomena in pulsed discharges. Streamers are propagating ionization fronts with self-organized field enhancement at their tips that can appear in gases at (or close to) atmospheric pressure. They are the precursors of other discharges like sparks and lightning, but they also occur in for example corona reactors or plasma jets which are used for a variety of plasma chemical purposes. When enough space is available, streamers can also form at much lower pressures, like in the case of sprite discharges high up in the atmosphere. We explain the structure and basic underlying physics of streamer discharges, and how they scale with gas density. We discuss the chemistry and applications of streamers, and describe their two main stages in detail: inception and propagation. We also look at some other topics, like interaction with flow and heat, related pulsed discharges, and electron runaway and high energy radiation. Finally, we discuss streamer simulations and diagnostics in quite some detail. This review is written with two purposes in mind: First, we describe recent results on the physics of streamer discharges, with a focus on the work performed in our groups. We also describe recent developments in diagnostics and simulations of streamers. Second, we provide background information on the above-mentioned aspects of streamers. This review can therefore be used as a tutorial by researchers starting to work in the field of streamer physics.Comment: 89 pages, 29 figure

What Determines the Parameters of a Propagating Streamer: A Comparison of Outputs of the Streamer Parameter Model and of Hydrodynamic Simulations

Electric streamer discharges (streamers) in the air are a very important stage of lightning, taking place before formation of the leader discharge, and with which an electric discharge starts from conducting objects which enhance the background electric field, such as airplanes. Despite years of research, it is still not well understood what mechanism determines the values of a streamer’s parameters, such as its radius and propagation velocity. The novel Streamer Parameter Model (SPM) was made to explain this mechanism, and to provide a way to efficiently calculate streamer parameters. Previously, we demonstrated that SPM results compared well with a limited set of experimental data. In this article, we compare SPM predictions to the published hydrodynamic simulation (HDS) results. Keywords: atmospheric electricity; electric streamer discharges; streamer theory; streamer parameters; plasma instabilities; partially-ionized plasmaspublishedVersio