Endocrinologia e controle da vitelogênese em carrapatos

Background:  :  :  : Ticks are distributed worldwide, with impacts on human and animal health. The cattle tick Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus is the main parasite that affects livestock in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, causing large economical losses. Tick control methods are based on the application of chemical acaricides, which has resulted in selection of resistant ticks and a potential risk of environmental pollution and food contamination. Vaccines have showed to be a feasible tick control method that offers a cost-effective, environmental friendly alternative to chemical control. However, more than ten years after the commercialization of the first vaccine against ticks, the identification of tick-protective antigens remains a limiting step in the development of an efficient formulation that would avoid the use of chemical acaricides. So, the study of parasite biology and understanding physiological mechanisms could be a good strategy to find new targets for an efficient vaccine. Review: It was reviewed the main insights about the reproductive process in ticks, emphasizing the hormonal control of vitellogenesis and enzymes involved in vitellin processing during embryogenesis. The processes of vitellogenesis and embryogenesis have been studied in various organisms, particularly in cockroaches, flies and ticks. Although the roles of 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) and juvenile hormone have been well characterized for vitellogenesis in insects, we know much less about the hormonal control of vitellogenesis in ticks. Initially, it was hypothesized that juvenile hormone was involved in tick vitellogenin-synthesis. However, more critical studies uncovered no evidence for the occurrence of juvenile hormone or juvenile hormone-like molecules in several tick species. Current research shows that in ticks, it appears that ecdysteroids, and not juvenile hormone, regulate the expression of the vitellogenin gene and the synthesis and release of vitellogenin protein into the hemolymph. In general, the carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid composition of tick vitellogenin is similar to that of insect vitellogenin. Once in the hemolymph, oocytes uptake vitellogenin through receptor-mediated  endocytosys. However, there are different strategies to control vitellogenin synthesis and uptake by ovary in ixodide ticks. In the oocytes, vitellogenin is partially processed in the endosomal compartment and then stored as vitellin, the main reserve of protein for embryo development, in specialized organelles, the yolk granules. Embryo development depends on the availability of yolk material stored into oocytes. So, the characterization of molecules involved in vitellogenesis and embryo development contribute to a better understanding of the tick parasite physiology. During embryogesesis, acidic enzymes are responsible for the availability of this material and embryo nutrition. The Vitellin-Degrading Cysteine Endopeptidase (VTDCE), Boophilus Yolk Pro-Cathepsin (BYC) and Tick Heme Binding Aspartic Proteinase (THAP) are enzymes involved in vitellin hydrolysis in R. microplus eggs. These enzymes are produced by gut and fat body and transported through the hemolymph to be internalized into the oocytes and then play their role in tick embryo nutrition. As VTDCE, BYC and THAP are involved in an important physiological process, their potential as targets in an anti-tick vaccine is an attractive research topic. With this objective, various enzymes have been tested in native or recombinant forms as candidate immunogens to a multiantigenic anti-tick vaccine. Conclusion: Significant advancements have been made in recent years on understanding the tick reproductive process, and some molecules that can be possible targets for development of new tick control strategies have been characterized

Endocrine Control of Lone Star Tick, Amblyomma americanum (L.), Salivary Gland Differentiation

Zoolog

Biology and Molecular Biology of \u3ci\u3eIxodes scapularis\u3c/i\u3e

This chapter describes the biology of the tick Ixodes scapularis in relation to its role as the vector of the Lyme disease agent, Borrelia burgdorferi. Following a review of the internal anatomy of the tick, we review basic molecular processes that contribute to an understanding of the dynamics of the tick\u27s specialized parasitic processes, including attachment behavior, salivation; silencing of host anti-inflammatory responses to enable blood ingestion at the dermal feeding site; hemoglobin digestion and reproduction. The chapter is divided into three parts: 1) systematic and anatomical characteristics of ticks; 2) host finding, attachment, salivary disruption of host defenses, blood feeding and digestion; and 3) molecular regulation of tick bodily functions and reproduction. In the first part, we review the systematics of ticks and the taxonomic position of the vector of Lyme disease, I. scapularis, compared to other tick species. Next, we review the general organization of the tick body, including (a) the mouthparts essential for sucking blood, (b) the powerful sucking pharynx, (c) the midgut and its role in blood and hemoglobin digestion, (d) the salivary glands and their complex cellular organization, (e) the synganglion (a fused central nervous system) responsible for controlling all body functions, (f) the reproductive organs, and (g) the tracheal system that facilitates air intake and removal of CO2. In the second part, we highlight the role of the tick\u27s salivary glands in secreting a remarkably complex array of anti-hemostatic molecules that modulate the bite site in the host skin and how these salivary molecules facilitate the lengthy blood-sucking process. We also describe how ticks capture hemoglobin and internalize it in midgut epithelial cells for intracellular digestion, followed by the sequestration of heme into specialized hemosomes for disposal as hematin. We also will review the neural control of regulation of tick salivary glands, blood uptake, hemoglobin digestion, blood meal concentration, water/salt elimination, vitellogenesis and receptor mediated vitellogenin uptake in the developing oocytes and their oviposition

Insight into the underlying immune interaction of Rickettsia infection in the vector-pathogen-host interface

Ixodid ticks are second only to mosquitos in their notorious role as vectors of pathogens to both animals and humans. Rickettsioses are among the most important tick-borne diseases in Europe, Mediterranean spotted fever in particular. To date, many studies have been performed in order to uncover the underlying mechanisms of this disease, in terms of the interactions among its constituents, i.e., the pathogen, Rickettsia conorii, its vector, Rhipicephalus sanguineus tick, and a vertebrate host. However, important gaps remain in this knowledge, among them studies of the relationship of its vector and pathogen, and also the role of tick saliva in vector-host interactions. Thus, in order to approach these limitations, in the first part of this dissertation three studies were performed in order to analyze the vector-pathogen-host interface in natural settings (chapter 2). As a result of the first of these studies, co-infections of Borrelia lusitaniae with R. helvetica and R. slovaca were found in ticks collected from a natural safari park in the south of Portugal; new host-pathogen associations were found in the second study described, performed in Madeira Island, namely lizards infected with R. monacensis, as well as detection of R. helvetica in ticks, which was a first occurrence in this island; and in the last study a new species of Rickettsia was isolated from soft ticks collected from pig pens from Alentejo, Portugal. In chapter 3 experimental studies on the vector were performed through analysis of R. massiliae in Rh. sanguineus tick organs. We performed a quantitative analysis of R. massiliae in the salivary glands of feeding Rh. sanguineus ticks, and observed a statistically significant increase in bacterial load during the first two days, followed by a plateau up to day 6 of feeding. An ultrastructural study was also performed on the salivary glands, ovaries and midgut of R. massiliae infected-Rh. sanguineus, where we observed the reactivation phenomenon of Rickettsia in the salivary glands of fed ticks as a result of tick feeding. In the final part of this dissertation the role of tick saliva was ascertained in terms of bacterial burden and immune responses in a murine susceptible host, using uninfected Rh. sanguineus ticks and C3H/HeJ mice. No statistically significant differences in bacterial load were observed between the two groups of R. conorii-infected animals, one of which infested with ticks. However, host cytokine analysis of both groups of animals revealed statistically significant differences, suggesting an inhibitory effect of tick saliva on host pro-inflammatory responses (chapter 4); RESUMO: Estudo das interacções imunes do hospedeiro e vector resultantes da infecção por Rickettsia spp. Os ixodídeos desempenham um papel fundamental como vectores de agentes patogénicos tanto em animais como em humanos. As rickettsioses, com destaque para a febre escaronodular, encontram-se entre as doenças transmitidas por carraças mais importantes na Europa. Até à data muitos estudos foram efectuados de modo a descortinar os mecanismos subjacentes a esta doença, em termos das interacções entre os seus constituintes, i.e., agente patogénico, Rickettsia conorii , o seu vector, o ixodídeo Rhipicephalus sanguineus, e um hospedeiro vertebrado. Todavia, existem ainda lacunas neste conhecimento a nível da relação vector-agente patogénico, para além do papel da saliva do vector nas interacções agente patogénico-hospedeiro. Assim, numa tentativa de colmatar estas limitações, na primeira parte desta dissertação foram realizados três estudos para análise dos fenómenos que ocorrem naturalmente na interface vector-agente patogénico-hospedeiro ocorrentes na natureza (capítulo 2). Como resultado do primeiro destes estudos, foram encontradas co-infecções de Borrelia lusitaniae com R. helvetica e R. slovaca em ixodídeos capturados num parque safari no sul de Portugal. No segundo estudo descrito, efectuado na ilha da Madeira, foram encontradas novas associações hospedeiro-agente patogénico, nomeadamente lagartixas infectadas com R. monacensis, detectou-se R. helvetica em carraças, pela primeira vez nesta ilha, e foi possível isolar uma nova espécie de Rickettsia a partir de carraças de corpo mole capturados em pocilgas no Alentejo, Portugal. O capítulo 3 aborda os resultados de estudos experimentais efetuados no vector, através da análise de R. massiliae em orgãos de Rh. sanguineus. Realizámos uma análise quantitativa da R. massiliae em glândulas salivares de Rh. sanguineus durante a sua refeição sanguínea, tendo-se observado um aumento estatisticamente significativo da carga bacteriana nos dois primeiros dias de alimentação, seguido de um patamar até ao dia 6 da alimentação sanguínea. Foi também efectuado um estudo ultraestrutural nas glândulas salivares, ovários e intestino médio de Rh. sanguineus infectados com R. massiliae, onde observámos o fenómeno de reactivação da Rickettsia nas glândulas salivares dos ixodídeos alimentados, resultante do processo de alimentação. Na parte final desta dissertação analisámos o papel da saliva de ixodídeos em termos da carga bacteriana e respostas imunes num hospedeiro murino susceptível, usando Rh. sanguineus não infectados e ratinhos C3H/HeJ. Não verificámos diferenças estatisticamente significativas entre as cargas bacterianas de dois grupos de animais infectados com R. conorii, em que apenas um dos grupos estava infestado com carraças. Todavia, a análise de citoquinas no hospedeiro em ambos os grupos experimentais revelou diferenças estatisticamente significativas, sugerindo um efeito inibitório da saliva dos ixodídeos nas respostas pro-inflamatórias do hospedeiro (capítulo 4)

Ticks (Ixodida)

Entomology and Plant Patholog

Vitellogenesis in \u3ci\u3eHyalomma dromedarii\u3c/i\u3e (Acari: Ixodidae): A Model for Analysis of Endocrine Regulation in Ixodid Ticks

The egg yolk proteins, vitellins, and their hemolymph precursors, vitellogenins, were characterized in the ixodid tick Hyalomma dromedarii. Three vitellins were identified. The high molecular weight vitellins, VN A and VN B, were composed of seven homologous molecular weight subunit polypeptides, VN 1-7. VN A appears to be a dimeric form of VN B. VN C was composed of single polypeptide. Low levels of vitellogenin, were identified in western immunoblots utilizing antibody raised against purified vitellin. Adult protein and polypeptide profiles, including vitellin and vitellogenin, were characterized as a function of sex, tissue and reproductive development. Quantitative assessment of the vitellin and vitellogenin was accomplished by ELISA. By this method, a rise in the level of vitellogenin from 0.15 to 11.19 % of the hemolymph protein between the stages of fed virgin and repletion in females was observed. Similarly, fat body levels rose from 0.15 to 3.0% during these physiological stages. The level of ovarian vitellin rose rapidly from 0.39 to over 50% of the tissue protein during the four days after repletion. The level of vitellogenin in midgut, salivary gland and muscle, increased slowly during repletion, and never exceeded 1.1% of its respective tissue protein. Tissue specific synthesis of vitellogenin and vitellin was monitored in vitro. Continuous synthesis of vitellogenin was demonstrated with replete fat body tissue over an eight day culture period. Other tissues, including ovary, midgut, muscle and salivary gland, did not synthesize vitellin or vitellogenin in vitro. Stimulation of vitellogenin synthesis by various authentic hormones and tissue extracts was tested both in vitro and in vivo. Vitellogenin synthesis by cultured fed virgin fat body was stimulated 35 fold by treatment with synganglion extracts from replete females. Similar stimulation of vitellogenesis with synganglion extracts was observed in vivo. Although Juvenile hormone bis-epoxide and 20 hydroxyecdysone treatment did not affect vitellogenin synthesis in cultured fed virgin fat body, they did demonstrate stimulatory activity in vivo. Multihormonal regulation of vitellogenesis, involving a synganglion factor, a juvenoid and 20 hydroxyecdysone is considered

RNA Interference

RNA interference (RNAi), a hallmark of all biological sciences of twenty-first century, is an evolutionarily conserved and double-stranded RNA-dependent eukaryotic cell defense process. Opportunity to utilize an organisms own gene and to systematically induce and trigger RNAi for any desired sequence made RNAi an efficient approach for functional genomics, providing a solution for conventional longstanding obstacles in life sciences. RNAi research and application have significantly advanced during past two decades. This book RNA interference provides an updated knowledge and progress on RNAi in various organisms, explaining basic principles, types, and property of inducers, structural modifications, delivery systems/methodologies, and various successful bench-to-field or clinic applications and disease therapies with some aspects of limitations, alternative tools, safety, and risk assessment