Evaluation of a Content Comprehension Approach to Reading English for Science and Technology

ESP materials developers are frequently called upon to develop language materials for narrowly defined fields of study. Too often the language of the "target" texts which form the basis of the course is viewed as a product which the learners must master rather than as the stimulus for a complex set of interacting learner strategies and tasks embedded in the learning process. In part, this reflects a view that texts are linguistic objects rather than vehicles for the presentation of information (Johns and Davies, 1983). That is, the passages are considered to be objects representing organizational or syntactic structures to be studied and mastered by students. However, such topological approaches may lead to strict bottom-up and discrete views of teaching and learning. The present study reports on an ESP approach designed to incorporate the learner's motivation to gain information into the process of learning to read science and technology texts in English. Here the central focus of English for Science and Technology (EST) is the interaction of the learner reading strategies and the reading tasks the learner performs. That is, EST is seen within the context of the reading process, and authentic EST reading involves using the text to gain information.The context of this study is the Reading English for Science and Technology (REST) Project in the Chemical Engineering Department of the Universidad de Guadalajara (UdeG). This is a joint project between the UdeG and the University of California at Los Angeles. The students are in their third and fourth years of a five year course leading to a degree in Chemical Engineering. The EST courses are not compulsory. Rather, they are elective courses offered in the University five hours each week. The students have no particular desire or perceived need to learn English other than in order to gain information from journal articles, manuals and textbooks in their university studies and future jobs. The students are 11false beginners" in that they have had four to five years of general EFL instruction in their preparatory and secondary schools prior to enrolling in the university. The discussion will present: (1) the theoretical bases for a reading based model to EST instruction as exemplified by the REST Project; (2) some implications of the approach for materials selection; (3) the process of implementing the approach; and (4) a discussion of student performance. Finally, it will discuss the implications of seeing EST, or ESP in general, within the context of the comprehension process, whether reading or listening

The Alternatives in Language Assessment: Advantages and Disadvantages

Language testing is different from testing in other content areas because language teachers have more choices to make than teachers of other subject matter. The purpose of this article is to help language teachers decide what types of language tests to use in their particular institutions and classrooms for their specific purposes. The various kinds of language assessments are categorized into three broad categories: (a) selected-response assessments (including tue-false, matching, and multiple' choice assessments), (b) constructed-response assessments (including fill-in, short-answer, and performance assessments), and (c) personal-response assessments (including conference, portfolio, and self/peer assessments). For each assessment type, we provide a clear definition and explore its advantages and disadvantages. We end the article with a discussion of how teachers can make rational choices among the various assessment options by thinking about (a) the consequences of the washback effect of assessment procedures on language teaching and learning, (b) the significance of feedback based on the assessment results, and (c) the importance of using multiple sources of information in making decisions based on assessment information

Performance Assessment of ESL and EFL Students

Thirteen prototypical performance tasks were selected from over 100 based on their generic appropriateness for the target population and on posited difficulty levels (associated with plus or niinus values for linguistic code command, cognitive operations, and communicative adaptation, as discussed in Norris, Brown, Hudson, & Yoshioka, 1998, after Skehan, 1996, 1998). These l3 tasks were used to create three test forms (with one anchor task common to all forms), two for use in an ESL setting at the University of Hawai'i, and one for use in an EFL setting at Kanda University of International Studies in Japan. In addition, two sets ofrating scales were created based on task-dependent and task-independent categories. For each individual task, the criteria for the task-dependent categories were created in consultation with an advanced language learner, a language teacher, and a non-ESL teacher, all ofwhom were well-acquainted with the target population and the prototype tasks. These criteria for success were allowed to differ from task to task depending on the input ofour consultants. The task-independent categories were created for each of three theoretically motivated components of task difficulty in terms of the adequacy of: (linguistic) code command, cognitive operations, and communicative adaptation. A third rating scale was developed for examinees to rate their own performance in terms of their familiarity with the task, their performance on the task, and the difficulty of the task. Pilot data were gathered from ESL and EFL students at a wide range of proficiency levels. Their performances were scored by raters using the task dependent and task-independent criteria. Analyses included descriptive statistics, reliability estimates (interrater, Cronbach alpha, etc.), correlational analysis, and implicational scale analysis. The results are interpreted and discussed in terms of: (a) the distributions ofscores for the task-dependent and task-independent ratings, (b) test reliability and ways to improve the consistency of measurement, and (c) test validify and the relationship of our task-based test to theory

Estuary contexts and governance models in the new climate era, New South Wales, Australia

Estuaries along the southeast coast of Australia form distinctive biophysical types. Each type reflects both geological setting and a Holocene geomorphic history associated with the degree of infill driven by marine and terrestrial processes. Of the 180 estuaries found within the state of New South Wales (NSW) many occur in national parks or are not significantly modified by human activities. For those estuaries where human activities are directly impacting environmental conditions and social, cultural and economic functions of the waterways, the management challenge is more complex. We combine the biophysical and socio-economic characteristics for the NSW coast to identify four “estuary contexts”, referred to as: 1) intermittently closed and open lakes and lagoons (ICOLLs), 2) coastal lakes, 3) deltaic floodplains, and 4) drowned river valleys. Each context may require different governance arrangements to address the coastal management requirements as outlined in recently introduced NSW legislation and planning policy. Such arrangements become especially urgent given threats facing private and public assets in low-lying locations around the shores of these estuaries as sea level continues to rise and climate change adaptation strategies set out in local government Coastal Management Programs are developed and implemented

International Veterinary Epilepsy Task Force recommendations for systematic sampling and processing of brains from epileptic dogs and cats

Traditionally, histological investigations of the epileptic brain are required to identify epileptogenic brain lesions, to evaluate the impact of seizure activity, to search for mechanisms of drug-resistance and to look for comorbidities. For many instances, however, neuropathological studies fail to add substantial data on patients with complete clinical work-up. This may be due to sparse training in epilepsy pathology and or due to lack of neuropathological guidelines for companion animals. The protocols introduced herein shall facilitate systematic sampling and processing of epileptic brains and therefore increase the efficacy, reliability and reproducibility of morphological studies in animals suffering from seizures. Brain dissection protocols of two neuropathological centres with research focus in epilepsy have been optimised with regards to their diagnostic yield and accuracy, their practicability and their feasibility concerning clinical research requirements. The recommended guidelines allow for easy, standardised and ubiquitous collection of brain regions, relevant for seizure generation. Tissues harvested the prescribed way will increase the diagnostic efficacy and provide reliable material for scientific investigations

INT reduction is a valid proxy for eukaryotic plankton respiration despite the inherent toxicity of INT and differences in cell wall structure

The reduction of 2-para (iodophenyl)-3(nitrophenyl)-5(phenyl) tetrazolium chloride (INT) is increasingly being used as an indirect method to measure plankton respiration. Its greater sensitivity and shorter incubation time compared to the standard method of measuring the decrease in dissolved oxygen concentration, allows the determination of total and size-fractionated plankton respiration with higher precision and temporal resolution. However, there are still concerns as to the method’s applicability due to the toxicity of INT and the potential differential effect of plankton cell wall composition on the diffusion of INT into the cell, and therefore on the rate of INT reduction. Working with cultures of 5 marine plankton (Thalassiosira pseudonana CCMP1080/5, Emiliania huxleyi RCC1217, Pleurochrysis carterae PLY-406, Scrippsiella sp. RCC1720 and Oxyrrhis marina CCMP1133/5) which have different cell wall compositions (silica frustule, presence/absence of calcite and cellulose plates), we demonstrate that INT does not have a toxic effect on oxygen consumption at short incubation times. There was no difference in the oxygen consumption of a culture to which INT had been added and that of a replicate culture without INT, for periods of time ranging from 1 to 7 hours. For four of the cultures (T. pseudonana CCMP1080/5, P. carterae PLY-406, E. huxleyi RCC1217, and O. marina CCMP1133/5) the log of the rates of dissolved oxygen consumption were linearly related to the log of the rates of INT reduction, and there was no significant difference between the regression lines for each culture (ANCOVA test, F = 1.696, df = 3, p = 0.18). Thus, INT reduction is not affected by the structure of the plankton cell wall and a single INT reduction to oxygen consumption conversion equation is appropriate for this range of eukaryotic plankton. These results further support the use of the INT technique as a valid proxy for marine plankton respiration

Colorectal cancer screening among African American church members: A qualitative and quantitative study of patient-provider communication

BACKGROUND: A healthcare provider's recommendation to undergo screening has been shown to be one of the strongest predictors of completing a colorectal cancer (CRC) screening test. We sought to determine the relationship between the general quality of self-rated patient-provider communication and the completion of CRC screening. METHODS: A formative study using qualitative data from focus groups and quantitative data from a cross-sectional survey of church members about the quality of their communication with their healthcare provider, their CRC risk knowledge, and whether they had completed CRC screening tests. Focus group participants were a convenience sample of African American church members. Participants for the survey were recruited by telephone from membership lists of 12 African American churches located in rural counties of North Carolina to participate in the WATCH (Wellness for African Americans Through Churches) Project. RESULTS: Focus Groups. Six focus groups (n = 45) were conducted prior to the baseline survey. Discussions focused on CRC knowledge, and perceived barriers/motivators to CRC screening. A theme that emerged during each groups' discussion about CRC screening was the quality of the participants' communication with their health care provider. Survey. Among the 397 participants over age 50, 31% reported CRC screening within the recommended guidelines. Participants who self-rated their communication as good were more likely to have been screened (36%) within the recommended guidelines than were participants with poor communication (17%) (OR = 2.8, 95% CI 1.2, 6.4; p = 0.013). Participants who had adequate CRC knowledge completed CRC screening at a higher rate than those with inadequate knowledge (p = 0.011). The percentage of participants with CRC screening in the recommended guidelines, stratified by communication and knowledge group were: 42% for good communication/adequate knowledge; 27% for good communication/inadequate knowledge; 29% for poor communication/adequate knowledge; and 5% for poor communication/inadequate knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: Participants who rated their patient-provider communication as good were more likely to have completed CRC screening tests than those reporting poor communication. Among participants reporting good communication, knowledge about colorectal cancer was also associated with test completion. Interventions to improve patient-provider communication may be important to increase low rates of CRC screening test completion among African Americans

Processes of local alcohol policy-making in England: Does the theory of policy transfer provide useful insights into public health decision-making?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Recent years have seen a rise in new and innovative policies to reduce alcohol consumption and related harm in England, which can be implemented by local, as opposed to national, policy-makers. The aim of this paper is to explore the processes that underpin the adoption of these alcohol policies within local authorities. In particular, it aims to assess whether the concept of policy transfer (i.e. a process through which knowledge about policies in one place is used in the development of policies in another time or place) provides a useful model for understanding local alcohol policy-making. METHODS: Qualitative data generated through in-depth interviews and focus groups from five case study sites across England were used to explore stakeholder experiences of alcohol policy transfer between local authorities. The purposive sample of policy actors included representatives from the police, trading standards, public health, licensing, and commissioning. Thematic analysis was used inductively to identify key features in the data. RESULTS: Themes from the policy transfer literature identified in the data were: policy copying, emulating, hybridization, and inspiration. Participants described a multitude of ways in which learning was shared between places, ranging from formal academic evaluation to opportunistic conversations in informal settings. Participants also described facilitators and constraints to policy transfer, such as the historical policy context and the local cultural, economic, and bureaucratic context, which influenced whether or not a policy that was perceived to work in one place might be transferred successfully to another context. CONCLUSIONS: Theories of policy transfer provide a promising framework for characterising processes of local alcohol policy-making in England, extending beyond debates regarding evidence-informed policy to account for a much wider range of considerations. Applying a policy transfer lens enables us to move beyond simple (but still important) questions of what is supported by 'robust' research evidence by paying greater attention to how policy making is carried out in practice and the multiple methods by which policies diffuse across jurisdictions

Canagliflozin and Renal Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes and Nephropathy

BACKGROUND Type 2 diabetes mellitus is the leading cause of kidney failure worldwide, but few effective long-term treatments are available. In cardiovascular trials of inhibitors of sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2), exploratory results have suggested that such drugs may improve renal outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. METHODS In this double-blind, randomized trial, we assigned patients with type 2 diabetes and albuminuric chronic kidney disease to receive canagliflozin, an oral SGLT2 inhibitor, at a dose of 100 mg daily or placebo. All the patients had an estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of 30 to 300 to 5000) and were treated with renin–angiotensin system blockade. The primary outcome was a composite of end-stage kidney disease (dialysis, transplantation, or a sustained estimated GFR of <15 ml per minute per 1.73 m 2), a doubling of the serum creatinine level, or death from renal or cardiovascular causes. Prespecified secondary outcomes were tested hierarchically. RESULTS The trial was stopped early after a planned interim analysis on the recommendation of the data and safety monitoring committee. At that time, 4401 patients had undergone randomization, with a median follow-up of 2.62 years. The relative risk of the primary outcome was 30% lower in the canagliflozin group than in the placebo group, with event rates of 43.2 and 61.2 per 1000 patient-years, respectively (hazard ratio, 0.70; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.59 to 0.82; P=0.00001). The relative risk of the renal-specific composite of end-stage kidney disease, a doubling of the creatinine level, or death from renal causes was lower by 34% (hazard ratio, 0.66; 95% CI, 0.53 to 0.81; P<0.001), and the relative risk of end-stage kidney disease was lower by 32% (hazard ratio, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.54 to 0.86; P=0.002). The canagliflozin group also had a lower risk of cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, or stroke (hazard ratio, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.67 to 0.95; P=0.01) and hospitalization for heart failure (hazard ratio, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.47 to 0.80; P<0.001). There were no significant differences in rates of amputation or fracture. CONCLUSIONS In patients with type 2 diabetes and kidney disease, the risk of kidney failure and cardiovascular events was lower in the canagliflozin group than in the placebo group at a median follow-up of 2.62 years