Public Practice: How Women Nursed Their Way Into Society

The advent of the American Civil War in 1861 abruptly halted the burgeoning Women’s Rights Movement of the mid-nineteenth century. The urgency of the Union war effort quickly overtook the fledgling movement. This did not eliminate women from the public sphere; rather, it pushed them into roles that would pave the way to a rekindled Women’s Rights Movement, the creation of the National Woman Suffrage Association in 1869, and eventually, women’s suffrage. This paper considers the roles Union women played in the American Civil War - from domestic work to nursing in field hospitals, to a brave few who dared to fight on the frontlines, disguised as men - and how they catapulted women out of private life into the public view. This paper argues that growing public acceptance facilitated the larger post-war Women’s Rights Movement and allowed it to flourish. This argument is supported primarily by the writings of women during this time, including the journals of Louisa May Alcott and the speeches of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. Materials referenced include original diary entries, United States Sanitary Commission minutes, and peer-reviewed historical research journals. This paper works to refute the popular belief that the American Women’s Rights Movement was entirely abandoned during the Civil War. It synthesizes both primary and secondary source information to establish a narrative of female activism that allowed the future Women’s Rights Movement to grow and thrive

Microbial Weathering of Volcanic Rocks

The aim of this thesis was to further the knowledge on microbial weathering, by looking at the effect of model organisms (Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Geobacter metallireducens) to natural microbial communities (from basaltic glass). It was found that the medium water-rock ratio (50:1) provided the optimum conditions for A. ferrooxidans growth, whilst the low water-rock ratio (1:1) had a lower release of iron because of pH. The pH affected the release of iron and REEs, with less released the higher the pH. In addition, it was found that, though localised areas of hematite were found on the treated rocks, there were also oxidised layers that did not correspond to specific mineralogy. The lack of specific mineral signatures on the rock surface, but the apparent oxidation of the surface, suggested that the surface had been passivated with Fe3+ binding to the mineral surface. In contrast, G. metallireducens did not affect the production of Fe2+ from basalt glass when compared to controls. However, when low water-rock ratios and hematite were tested, a difference was observed between abiotic and biotic flasks. It was suggested the low water-rock ratio possibly allowed G. metallireducens to obtain the iron more easily by affecting the pH of the solution which in turn affected the stability of the bound iron. In terms of studying microbial communities on rocks, it was found that community structure in Icelandic basaltic glass changed over time, becoming more diverse, with a switch from r- to K-selected microorganisms over the course of the year, similarly to results obtained in the field. DGGE results showed each flask had a distinctive population - with no correlation between ratios, and replicates different in composition to each other. It is suggested that, though community does change over time (as shown by the clone libraries), the ratios do not have an effect and each flask is developing with its own ‘microbial island’. However, the results of the chemistry of the flask solutions indicated that the biological experiments showed differences in pH and elemental release between ratios. Elemental release rates were faster in the biological experiments. The natural communities affected mineral dissolution, possibly through the release of organic acids, which would also account for the drop in pHs observed in the biological experiments. It was noted that there were differences in dissolution rates between the results reported in this thesis and previous literature. It is suggested that these are caused by the rock surface area as in previous studies the rocks have typically been crushed into powder and fine particles. This crushed powder would have provided fresh rock surface for the microorganisms and also greater surface area for reactions to take place, accounting for generally higher weathering rates in previous literature per unit weight of material

The sex biased litter in utero and its effect on post-natal health, development, and reproductive capacity of the commercial pig

Environmental stressors in-utero, including extremes of steroid hormone exposure, can negatively affect reproductive function, the development of offspring, as well as life-course health trajectories in a myriad of species. However, few studies to date have investigated the mechanisms responsible. This thesis tested the hypothesis that a sex ratio biased uterine environment would influence the reproductive capacity of the gilt, and the health and production parameters of pigs within commercial production systems. An initial scoping review showed results from different in-utero sex ratios were highly variable both between and within species, but overarching themes of negative influences of androgenised uterine environments on reproductive outputs, physiological development, and maternal/paternal behaviour were established. Across species, the testosterone biased intra-uterine environment increased aggression whilst decreasing fearful behaviour. I subsequently investigated whether females gestated in biased uterine environments (65% or more of one sex) exhibited altered reproductive potential postnatally. I examined the ovarian reserve and endometrial morphology of these individuals, revealing significant effects to follicle profiles dependent on birth weights, but no effect on endometrial development. A collaborative project utilising commercial pigs investigated whether a hormonally biased environment influenced growth, health, and carcass quality parameters. This found that male and female pigs from a biased uterine environment were more likely to die or be culled before reaching slaughter weight, due to illness and injury, or due to behavioural vices. No effects on growth nor carcass parameters were identified based on uterine bias, but male pigs produced a higher quality carcass than females. In summary, I have provided evidence further supporting an altered reproductive capacity in female pigs and altered mortality causes in pigs from androgenised and oestrogenised litters compared to non-biased litters. This thesis bridges the gap of how the hormonally biased uterine environment may mechanistically contribute to poor reproductive success in breeding sows. Further it is the first study to identify a higher life-course mortality rate in pigs originating from biased litters. It is recommended that the sex ratio of an originating litter, as well as an individual’s birth weight, should be considered when selecting breeding sows

Psychopathy and Empathy: A Correlational Study

Cognitive and affective empathy have long been thought to play an important role in moral decision making. While most individuals have intact capabilities, certain populations are believed to have deficits in empathy , especially individuals high in psychopathy. Specifically, psychopathic individuals are known to have the capacity for cognitive empathy but not affective empathy. The present study further examined the relationship between psychopathy, cognitive empathy, and affective empathy using undergraduates from Belmont University. Participants were recruited from introduction to psychology courses and completed the 4th edition of the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (SRP 4) ) as well as the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy (QCAE) . We expect that psychopathy will be positively correlated with cognitive empathy and negatively correlated with affective empathy

Monitoring bioaerosol and odour emissions from composting facilities - WR1121

Government policy requires that valuable resources should be recovered and recycled from biodegradable waste. A successful and growing organics recycling industry delivers this policy with composting being one of the principal technologies deployed to process suitable feedstock such as garden and food waste. Composting inevitably generates bioaerosols – particulate matter comprising cells or cellular components that are released into the air as a result of disturbance of composting feedstock or the processing of final product. Exposure to bioaerosols has the potential to be harmful to human and animal health. The Environment Agency adopts a precautionary and risk-based approach to the regulation of composting facilities which was developed on the basis of research by Wheeler et al. (2001) and which has been updated as new evidence has become available. The Environment Agency also requires site operators to monitor bioaerosols around their facilities using methods specified in a standard protocol which relies upon classical microbiology methods which are tried and tested but which are labour-intensive, slow and offer only a snapshot view of a highly dynamic system. A recent IOM review commissioned by Defra (Searl, 2009) on exposure-response relationships for bioaerosol emissions from waste treatment processes identified significant gaps in knowledge of exposure to bioaerosols and recommended that more research was needed into alternatives to viable microbial monitoring such as priority biomarkers (notably endotoxin) and potential surrogates such as particulate matter. The IOM review also concluded that there is a lack of information to support the development of appropriate stand-off distances. The overall aim of this project was to provide evidence on bioaerosol production, dispersion and potential exposures from composting facilities in support of future developments in policy and regulation of biowaste facilities. The objectives were: (i) to undertake a comprehensive set of standard and novel bioaerosol measurements at representative composting sites to assess comparability between different methods and also to measure spatial and temporal variations; and (ii) to determine the odour emissions and then compare these with bioaerosol emissions to see if odour is a marker of significant bioaerosol exposure. Standard (AfOR, 2009) and novel (CEN filter method, endotoxin, glucan, qPCR, real-time particulates) bioaerosols measurements were taken on a minimum of three to a maximum of six occasions over a twelve month period at four different composting facilities in England. The composting facilities were selected to represent sites of varying sizes (tonnages) and to allow a comparison of bioaerosol concentrations at standard open windrow sites versus a fully-contained site. Additional supporting information was collected including meteorological data at the time of sampling, observation of site operations and measurements of odour at one of the sites. Supporting bioaerosol and odour dispersion modelling was conducted at the site where the odour measurements were made. The spatial trend of bioaerosol concentrations described by Wheeler et al., (1991) and upon which EA regulatory policy is based was broadly corroborated by this dataset. Excursions above the EA acceptable levels at or beyond 250m from source were rare. Bioaerosol concentrations at the enclosed site were generally lower than at the open windrow sites. There was no evidence of a seasonal pattern in bioaerosol concentrations at any of the sites whereas between-sampling day variations were apparent. The cause(s) of these variations were not identified. No consistent relationship was observed between the concentration of bioaerosols measured by the two AfOR standard methods. The two methods displayed certain strengths and weakness in different situations. The IOM sampling device proved to be better suited to situations where high bioaerosol concentrations were encountered (close to source); the Andersen proving to be more effective in the lower concentration range typically found upwind of a site or at distance downwind from source. The higher volume filtration device tested in this project (referred to as the CEN method) produced data that did not consistently match either of the AfOR standard methods. This device demonstrated greater sensitivity than the IOM filter method but suffered drawbacks associated with its weight and a lack of ease of use in the field. Endotoxin concentrations were normally below the level recommended by the Dutch Expert Committee on Occupational Safety but occasional exceedances of this standard were detected at the larger open windrow sites. The majority of glucan measurements were below a widely referred to 10ng/m3 threshold. Significantly elevated concentrations were detected at one of the larger open windrow sites. The dynamic range of the qPCR method is wider (4-5-log) than either of the AfOR and the CEN methods. It is also quicker to carry out and has the potential for automation. The results from the qPCR method are mainly higher than standard AfOR methods, as the method does not distinguish viable and non-viable spores. The spatial distribution of Aspergillus fumigatus spores (by qPCR) along sampling transects, gives similar results compared to AfOR (and CEN) methods. Real time particle detection showed that both TSP and PM10 are correlated to Aspergillus fumigatus spore concentration. No consistent relationship was observed between odour and bioaerosol concentrations (although this was a limited dataset). The envelope of modelled (back-extrapolated) bioaerosol emission rates straddles several orders of magnitude. Distinguishing the influences of meteorological conditions on this variability was not possible. It was not possible to predict bioaerosol or odour emission rates with confidence. This continues to hamper confidence in modelling of odours and bioaerosols from open windrow facilities. The findings of this research have implications for the current standard monitoring protocol which should be reviewed accordingly. The findings of this multi-site survey accord with existing regulatory policy and are supportive of the general trend towards enclosed facilities. Notwithstanding this, continuing research is needed to enhance the database on emission from bioaerosol and odour abatement technologies (e.g. biofilters); to determine the cause(s) of occasional bioaerosol peaks from open facilities; to improve exposure assessments through better modelling protocols; and to link enhanced exposure information to future health impact studies

Neonatal face-to-face interactions promote later social behaviour in infant rhesus monkeys

In primates, including humans, mothers engage in face-to-face interactions with their infants, with frequencies varying both within and across species. However, the impact of this variation in face-to-face interactions on infant social development is unclear. Here we report that infant monkeys (Macaca mulatta) who engaged in more neonatal face-to-face interactions with mothers have increased social interactions at 2 and 5 months. In a controlled experiment, we show that this effect is not due to physical contact alone: monkeys randomly assigned to receive additional neonatal face-to-face interactions (mutual gaze and intermittent lip-smacking) with human caregivers display increased social interest at 2 months, compared with monkeys who received only additional handling. These studies suggest that face-to-face interactions from birth promote young primate social interest and competenc

The mirror neuron system as revealed through neonatal imitation: presence from birth, predictive power, and evidence of plasticity

There is strong evidence that neonates imitate previously unseen behaviors. These behaviors are predominantly used in social interactions, demonstrating neonates’ ability and motivation to engage with others. Research on neonatal imitation can provide a wealth of information about the early mirror neuron system (MNS): namely, its functional characteristics, its plasticity from birth, and its relation to skills later in development. Though numerous studies document the existence of neonatal imitation in the laboratory, little is known about its natural occurrence during parent-infant interactions and its plasticity as a consequence of experience. We review these critical aspects of imitation, which we argue are necessary for understanding the early action-perception system. We address common criticisms and misunderstandings about neonatal imitation and discuss methodological differences among studies. Recent work reveals that individual differences in neonatal imitation positively correlate with later social, cognitive, and motor development. We propose that such variation in neonatal imitation could reflect important individual differences of the MNS. Although postnatal experience is not necessary for imitation, we present evidence that neonatal imitation is influenced by experience in the first week of life

Evolutionary relevance and experience contribute to face discrimination in infant macaques (Macaca mulatta)

In human children and adults, familiar face types—typically own-age and own-species faces—are discriminated better than other face types; however, human infants do not appear to exhibit an own-age bias but instead better discriminate adult faces, which they see more often. There are two possible explanations for this pattern: Perceptual attunement predicts advantages in discrimination for the most experienced face types. Additionally or alternatively, there may be an experience-independent bias for infants to discriminate own-species faces, an adaptation for evolutionarily relevant faces. These possibilities have not been disentangled in studies thus far, and these studies did not control infants’ early experiences with faces. In the present study, we tested these predictions in infant macaques (Macaca mulatta) reared under controlled environments, not exposed to adult conspecifics. We measured newborns’ (15–25 days; n = 27) and 6- to 7-month-olds’ (n = 35) discrimination of human and macaque faces at 3 ages—young infants, old infants, and adults—in a visual paired comparison task. We found that 6- to 7-month-olds were the best at discriminating adult macaque faces; however, in the first few seconds of looking, tthey additionally discriminated familiar face types—same-aged peer and adult human faces—thereby highlighting the importance of experience with certain face categories. The present data suggest that macaque infants possess both experience-independent and experientially tuned face biases. In human infants, early face skills may likewise be driven by both experience and evolutionary relevance; future studies should consider both of these factors

Strategies for measuring long-term control in atopic dermatitis trials: a systematic review

Background: Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory skin disease. There are no standardised methods for capturing long-term control of AD. Objective: To identify how long-term control has been captured in published randomised controlled trials (RCTs). Resultswill initiate consensus discussions on how best to measure long-term control in the core outcome set for AD. Methods: Systematic review of RCTs of AD treatments published between 2000 and 2013, with a follow-up period of ≥3 months, at least one outcome measure recorded at ≥3 time-points, full paper available, and published in English. Results: 101/ 353 RCTs were eligible. Methods to capture long-term control included: repeated measurement of AD outcomes (92 RCTs; 91%), use of AD medication (29 RCTs; 28.7%); and AD flares/remissions (26 RCTs; 25.7%). Repeated measurements of AD outcomes were typically collected 3 to 5 times during a trial, but analysis methods often failed to make best use of the data. Time to first flare was most commonly for trials including flare data (21/52). Medication-use was recorded based on quantity, potency and frequency of application. Limitations: Included RCT data only Conclusion: This review illustrates the difficulties in measuring long-term control, and points to the need for improved harmonization of outcomes

Evaluation of a modern-analogue methodology for reconstructing Australian palaeoclimate from pollen

Quantitative palaeoclimate reconstructions are widely used to evaluate climatemodel performance. Here, as part of an effort to provide such a data set for Australia, we examine the impact of analytical decisions and sampling assumptions on modern-analogue reconstructions using a continent-wide pollen data set. There is a high degree of correlation between temperature variables in the modern climate of Australia, but there is sufficient orthogonality in the variations of precipitation, summer and winter temperature and plant–available moisture to allow independent reconstructions of these four variables to be made. The method of analogue selection does not affect the reconstructions, although bootstrap resampling provides a more reliable technique for obtaining robust measures of uncertainty. The number of analogues used affects the quality of the reconstructions: the most robust reconstructions are obtained using 5 analogues. The quality of reconstructions based on post-1850 CE pollen samples differ little from those using samples from between 1450 and 1849 CE, showing that European post settlement modification of vegetation has no impact on the fidelity of the reconstructions although it substantially increases the availability of potential analogues. Reconstructions based on core top samples are more realistic than those using surface samples, but only using core top samples would substantially reduce the number of available analogues and therefore increases the uncertainty of the reconstructions. Spatial and/or temporal averaging of pollen assemblages prior to analysis negatively affects the subsequent reconstructions for some variables and increases the associated uncertainties. In addition, the quality of the reconstructions is affected by the degree of spatial smoothing of the original climate data, with the best reconstructions obtained using climate data froma 0.5° resolution grid, which corresponds to the typical size of the pollen catchment. This study provides a methodology that can be used to provide reliable palaeoclimate reconstructions for Australia, which will fill in a major gap in the data sets used to evaluate climate models