A dynamic model for the evolution of protein structure

Protein domains are three-dimensional arrangements of atomic structure that are recurrent in the proteomes of organisms. Since the three-dimensional structure of a protein determines its function, it is the fold, much more than the underlying protein sequence and underlying chemistry, that is evolutionarily conserved. We are interested in probing the history of life with these domain structures and glimpsing qualitative changes over time by studying a dynamic model of protein evolution. Using standard phylogenetic methods and a census of protein domain structure in hundreds of genomes, we have reconstructed phylogenetic trees of protein domains, defined using the Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP), where the nodes are folds or fold superfamilies (FSFs), the character vector for each node is a list of abundances of said fold or FSF across a range of species that spans all three superkingdoms of life, and the character states are linearly polarized by abundance; higher abundance within and among species equates to older structures and determines tree structure. Here we explore at what rate fold or FSF variants and new folds or FSFs appear in evolution. We also explore what collective model of proteome evolution explains such rates. Briefly, what are the dynamics of change? A set of birth-death differential equations was selected to capture the change of interest, with one set for folds and another for FSFs. The models assume that at any given moment there are a certain number of different folds or FSFs, with various abundances, and as each fold or FSF diversifies there are slight changes in the folds or FSFs, producing fold or FSF variants. Eventually as the variants continue to diversify and change as well, a new fold or FSF is born. Thus, there are two rate parameters in each model: the growth rate of fold or FSF variants and the rate of appearance of new folds or FSFs. The model governs the rate change of the average total abundance of a fold or FSF with time. It is fit to the tree so only those fold or FSF transitions actually present in the tree are assumed possible in the equations. It assumes a global perspective: the total abundance of a fold or FSF is that of the fold or FSF across all species, not within one organism. This perspective is used to properly discount terms of horizontal transfer in a birth-death model since such a transfer contributes no new folds or FSFs to the net abundance across all organisms. Our model determines 1) that there is a tight connection between the history of folds and FSFs, 2) that the corresponding transition probabilities to new variants of a fold experienced a sharp increase just as the transition probabilities to new folds experienced a steep decline and 3) that this simultaneous sharp increase and decline is explainable by and consistent with the combinatorial explosion of structural domains, referring to the period of high combination and rearrangement of domains and distribution of these new combinations in novel lineages, and the rise of organismal diversification. Our simulations suggest a picture of the past in which exploration of protein structure space proceeds much like that of a budding field of knowledge: first, coarse grain discoveries are made, followed by fine-grain elaboration of each once the coarse-grain discoveries have been exhausted

Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East

We report genome-wide ancient DNA from 44 ancient Near Easterners ranging in time between ~12,000 and 1,400 BC, from Natufian hunter–gatherers to Bronze Age farmers. We show that the earliest populations of the Near East derived around half their ancestry from a ‘Basal Eurasian’ lineage that had little if any Neanderthal admixture and that separated from other non-African lineages before their separation from each other. The first farmers of the southern Levant (Israel and Jordan) and Zagros Mountains (Iran) were strongly genetically differentiated, and each descended from local hunter–gatherers. By the time of the Bronze Age, these two populations and Anatolian-related farmers had mixed with each other and with the hunter–gatherers of Europe to greatly reduce genetic differentiation. The impact of the Near Eastern farmers extended beyond the Near East: farmers related to those of Anatolia spread westward into Europe; farmers related to those of the Levant spread southward into East Africa; farmers related to those of Iran spread northward into the Eurasian steppe; and people related to both the early farmers of Iran and to the pastoralists of the Eurasian steppe spread eastward into South Asia

Abnormal Growth Hormone Responses to Hypoglycemia and Exercise in Adults With Type I Diabetes

Abnormal regulation of growth hormone (GH) secretion has been reported in some patients with insulin-dependent diabetes (IDD). We compared the GH responses in 32 healthy subjects (age 25 ± 2 SE years) and in 23 IDD patients (28 ± 1.9 years old, diabetes duration 10.4 ± 2 years, and glycohemoglobin levels 9.3 ± 2.0%). During acute, severe hypoglycemia (glucose \u3c 40 mg/dl), the mean GH levels were similar. When prolonged mild hypoglycemia was induced (58.0 ± 2.0 mg/dl in the controls and 54.0 ± 2.0 mg/dl in the IDD patients), the mean GH levels were similar, although the increase in GH was delayed in the latter group. During brief (30 min) exercise at 40-50% of VO2 max, GH rose comparably in both groups (IDD patients maintained euglycemia with basal insulin infusion). However, with more prolonged and intense exercise using a glucose clamp to maintain euglycemia, GH rose to 5.4 ± 2.2 ng/ml in controls and 26.4 ± 12.6 ng/ml in the diabetics (P \u3c 0.05). When the combination of intense exercise and hypoglycemia (~ 55 mg/dl) was used, GH rose to a peak of 21.7 ± 2.7 ng/ml in the controls and to 33 ± 3.0 ng/ml in the diabetics (P = NS). Our data show that in insulin-infused IDD patients made euglycemic for these experiments: a) The GH response to acute, severe hypoglycemia was identical to that in the controls and the response to mild, prolonged hypoglycemia was delayed, but of similar magnitude compared with controls; b) Exercise-induced GH responses were observed in both groups, but exaggerated in the diabetics at a higher exercise intensity; c) Hypoglycemia during exercise produced an additive effect on GH secretion in the controls but not in the IDD patients. We conclude that the wide range of abnormal GH secretory responses in type I diabetes reflects a central, possibly hypothalamic, defect in GH regulation