The use of metaphor in scientific writing

For centuries both philosophers of science and scientists have challenged the use of metaphor in scientific discourse (Hoffman, 1980a,b), but a close look at this discourse reveals metaphor as a vital and necessary tool in developing scientific terminologies and hypotheses. I will begin my examination of metaphor in scientific discourse, with definitions: Simply put, metaphor is an implicit analogy of two unlike things. I.A. Richards (1936) refers to these two unlike parts of the metaphor as the tenor, the primary subject, or the thing being described, and the vehicle, which is the secondary subject or what the primary subject is being compared with. For example, in the metaphor the moon is a pumpkin, moon is the tenor (primary subject), and pumpkin is the vehicle (secondary subject)

Neologism production in jargon aphasia

This study investigates a jargon speaker, LT, whose connected speech is composed almost entirely of neologisms. Despite the general intelligibility of his speech, LT is able to produce discrete responses in picture naming tasks. Neologisms were investigated for their phonemic content. Non word responses maintained the normal English distribution of phonemes. Importantly, they also showed greater than chance levels of target relatedness. Analysis of LT's responses to a set of stimuli controlled for their consonant content allowed more detailed investigation of the nature of target and error phonology. A strong influence of phoneme frequency was identified. Higher frequency consonants showed a pattern of frequent but rather indiscriminate use. They often appeared in target related contexts but were also frequently misused in contexts where they were not required by the target phonology. Lower frequency consonants were realised less often. However, their use was restricted to target related contexts and they seldom appeared as error phonology. Further investigation showed that LT's ability to realise target phonology was influenced by the nature of the output task. A semantically primed reading condition resulted in a significant increase in the number of correct responses. Neologistic output showed a significant increase in the ability to realise target phonemes. Patterns of individual consonant use also showed significant changes. High frequency consonants showed a more refined distribution, appearing less frequently as error phonology. Low frequency consonants increased their rate of use but continued to be restricted to target related contexts. The findings of the investigations are discussed. The results are best explained by theories of neologism production which maintain a direct relationship between target and neologistic phonology and which propose a single mechanism underlying the production of both target related and abstruse neologistic output. Interactive activation accounts of lexical processing appear to be well placed to explain LT's output and a preliminary account is offered. Recommendations for the future investigation of neologistic output are made

Treat-to-target in PsA: methods and necessity

© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ. With increasing recognition of the high burden and impact of psoriatic arthritis (PsA) and the growing number of therapeutic options, there has been an intensifying focus on treatment strategy in recent years. In 2015, the Tight Control of Psoriatic Arthritis study confirmed the clinical benefit of using a treat-to-target approach in PsA. This randomised controlled trial found benefits in both arthritis and psoriasis disease activity as well as lower disease impact reported by patients, although participants allocated to tight control experienced a higher rate of serious adverse events. European and international recommendations support the use of a treat-to-target approach in PsA and have offered specific advice on how to do this using outcomes such as the minimal disease activity criteria. However, implementation of this approach in routine practice is low, with real-world data highlighting undertreatment as a result. Recent qualitative work with physicians in the UK has helped researchers to understand the barriers to implementation of treat-to-target in PsA. We now need to address these barriers, provide education and support to non-specialist clinicians in routine practice, and aid the translation of optimal care to the clinic

Equine nutrition: a survey of perceptions and practices of horse owners undertaking a massive open online course in equine nutrition

An online survey was designed to ascertain the following information: demographics, current feeding practices, and perceptions and knowledge of equine nutrition, including nutrition-related disorders. Response rate was 34% (6,538 respondents). More than 80% of respondents were horse owners or caretakers, with the majority owning between one and five horses (75%) aged 5 years and older (74%). Most kept their horses for pleasure (54%), with 33% using them mostly for competition and 13% using them for an equal mix of both pleasure and competition. Concentrates were fed by the majority (87%), and more than 70% stated that their horses had some access to pasture. Over half of respondents (60%) regularly monitored their horses' weight, with most doing this monthly. Weight tapes were most commonly used (62%), although many reported to guess the weight of their horse(s) with very few (5%) using weight scales. Under half (46%) stated that they regularly used body condition scoring (BCS), many did not use BCS at all (24%), and some did not know what BCS was (10%). Of those that did use BCS, most (36%) did this monthly, with others weekly (25%), daily (14%), and when they remembered (15%). Overall knowledge of nutrition was reported by most as average (median, 3 on Likert scale—average); however, respondents were less knowledgeable on the management of nutrition-related disorders

The timing of leaf flush in European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) saplings

Spring phenology is considered one of the most important determinants of growth and survival in young stands. It is relatively easy to monitor and is expected to respond to climate changes that will affect the favourable period for growth in temperate regions. The response of trees to the environmental cues that govern spring phenology is largely under genetic control and inter-populational differences exist within species. This suggests that the trait undergoes site-specific selection. Data obtained through monitoring of bud burst at multiple beech provenance-trials were compared with specific site and weather data to reveal geographical clines in beech phenology. We fitted the Weibull function to harmonise phenology data collected using various flushing scales and at different intensities of monitoring. By comparing data from 20 annual census of phenology performed across 13 sites throughout Europe, we showed that accumulated temperature sum > 5°C modelled the timing and duration of flushing more consistently than other temperature sum models > 0°C or > 8°C, or simply Julian Day. Inconsistency in the number of degree hours required for flushing among sites, reinforced the need for testing of more complex mechanistic models that include photoperiod, chilling period, and summer drought in addition to temperature sum. South-North, East-West, and low-high elevational clines were confirmed from the analysis. These findings; reinforce the need for caution in planting provenances from the south-east of Europe, suited to warmer-drier summers, in more north-westerly sites; and highlight the location of some potentially valuable late-flushing populations that also tolerate warm dry temperatures.Peer reviewe

Gene Dosage Effects at the Imprinted Gnas Cluster

Genomic imprinting results in parent-of-origin-dependent monoallelic gene expression. Early work showed that distal mouse chromosome 2 is imprinted, as maternal and paternal duplications of the region (with corresponding paternal and maternal deficiencies) give rise to different anomalous phenotypes with early postnatal lethalities. Newborns with maternal duplication (MatDp(dist2)) are long, thin and hypoactive whereas those with paternal duplication (PatDp(dist2)) are chunky, oedematous, and hyperactive. Here we focus on PatDp(dist2). Loss of expression of the maternally expressed Gnas transcript at the Gnas cluster has been thought to account for the PatDp(dist2) phenotype. But PatDp(dist2) also have two expressed doses of the paternally expressed Gnasxl transcript. Through the use of targeted mutations, we have generated PatDp(dist2) mice predicted to have 1 or 2 expressed doses of Gnasxl, and 0, 1 or 2 expressed doses of Gnas. We confirm that oedema is due to lack of expression of imprinted Gnas alone. We show that it is the combination of a double dose of Gnasxl, with no dose of imprinted Gnas, that gives rise to the characteristic hyperactive, chunky, oedematous, lethal PatDp(dist2) phenotype, which is also hypoglycaemic. However PatDp(dist2) mice in which the dosage of the Gnasxl and Gnas is balanced (either 2∶2 or 1∶1) are neither dysmorphic nor hyperactive, have normal glucose levels, and are fully viable. But PatDp(dist2) with biallelic expression of both Gnasxl and Gnas show a marked postnatal growth retardation. Our results show that most of the PatDp(dist2) phenotype is due to overexpression of Gnasxl combined with loss of expression of Gnas, and suggest that Gnasxl and Gnas may act antagonistically in a number of tissues and to cause a wide range of phenotypic effects. It can be concluded that monoallelic expression of both Gnasxl and Gnas is a requirement for normal postnatal growth and development

Jaw claudication and jaw stiffness in giant cell arteritis: Secondary analysis of a qualitative research dataset

Objectives Jaw symptoms can be a vital clue to the diagnosis of giant cell arteritis (GCA). Guidelines recommend more intensive treatment if jaw claudication is present. We sought to explore how patients with GCA described their jaw symptoms. Methods Secondary, qualitative analysis of interview data from 36 participants from the UK (n = 25) and Australia (n = 11), originally collected in order to develop a patient-reported outcome measure for GCA. In all cases, GCA had been confirmed by biopsy/imaging. Interview transcripts were organised within QSR NVivo 12 software, and analysed using template analysis. Themes were refined through discussion among the research team including a patient partner. Results 20/36 participants reported jaw symptoms associated with GCA. Median age of these 20 participants was 76.5 years; 60% were female. Five themes were identified: physical sensations; impact on function; impact on diet; symptom response with steroids; attribution to other causes. Physical sensations included ache, cramp, stiffness and “lock-jaw”. Functional impacts included difficulty in eating/chewing, cleaning teeth, speaking, or opening the mouth. Dietary impacts included switching to softer food. Response to steroids was not always immediate. Jaw symptoms were initially mis-attributed by some participants to arthritis, age or viral illnesses; or by healthcare professionals to dental cavity, ear infection or teeth-grinding. Conclusion Jaw symptoms in GCA are diverse and can lead to diagnostic confusion with primary temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disorder, potentially contributing to delay in GCA diagnosis. Further research is needed to determine the relationship of jaw stiffness to jaw claudication. Lay Summary Giant cell arteritis (GCA) causes inflammation of some of the larger blood vessels of the body, especially around the head and shoulders. If not treated, GCA can cause sight loss. Therefore, prompt diagnosis is important. Doctors are taught that one of the vital clues to GCA is jaw claudication: pain that comes on with chewing and resolves with rest. Guidelines state that patients presenting with jaw claudication need more intensive treatment. We looked back at interviews that had been done for a study to develop a questionnaire about the impact of GCA on patients. In these interviews, over half the participants described experiencing jaw symptoms, but these symptoms were not always typical “jaw claudication”. Jaw stiffness or difficulty opening the mouth were also described. For some patients, difficulty opening the mouth had the greatest impact on diet. Clinicians should be aware that GCA can present with a variety of jaw symptoms. Further research is needed to define the symptom of jaw claudication more precisely, as it may have diagnostic and treatment implications