Vulnerability in the offer of ecosystem services (SE) and the conservation of biodiversity in Antioquia

RESUMEN: La constante demanda de área para la producción y uso de Servicios Ecosistémicos, como consecuencia de la creciente población y consumo de recursos, conlleva a la pérdida de bosques y el declive de la biodiversidad. Con el objetivo de determinar el posible futuro de los bosques y la biodiversidad en el departamento de Antioquia (Colombia). En este artículo analizamos variables que generan presiones a los ecosistemas y su relación con las estrategias de conservación a través de áreas protegidas. Para conocer la conexión entre el mantenimiento de la oferta de Servicios Ecosistémicos, los incrementos entre los sectores productivos y algunas medidas de disminución de los servicios, dividimos las variables en tres grupos: i.) Variables para cuantificar la oferta de servicios de los ecosistemas; ii.) Variables de desarrollo económico; iii.) Variables de medición de la pérdida de funciones ecosistémicas. Mediante el uso de mapas de las subregiones de Antioquia, se pudieron conocer los porcentajes de ocupación de Servicios Ecosistémicos, entre ellos, la provisión de maderas y alimentos, la regulación (mitigación de emisiones de CO2, seguridad hídrica y fertilidad del suelo) y los servicios culturales (representatividad natural). Encontramos, a partir de todas las variables de consumo de Servicios Ecosistémicos consideradas, que ninguna variable presenta mayor peso respecto a las demás y que parece existir una relación entre pérdidas y ganancias de bosques con los niveles de las estrategias de conservación: en las subregiones donde las medidas de preservación son estrictas se presentan ganancias de bosque; y, por el contrario, en las subregiones donde predominan estrategias de desarrollo sostenible, como los Distritos de Manejo Integrado –DMI–, son constantes y mayores las tasas de deforestación. Los resultados obtenidos indican que los ecosistemas estratégicos son muy vulnerables al desarrollo económico y que las políticas de planeación del territorio fundamentadas en áreas protegidas con carácter de conservación estricta son una estrategia apropiada para disminuir las pérdidas de diversidad y el consecuente desabastecimiento de Servicios Ecosistémicos esenciales para la humanidad, como lo son la seguridad hídrica, el clima sostenible y el equilibrio global.ABSTRACT: The constant demand of area for the production and use of Ecosystem Services, as a consequence of the growing population and consumption of resources, determines the losses of forests and the decline of biodiversity. In order to determine the possible future of forests and biodiversity in the department of Antioquia (Colombia), in this article we analyze variables that generate pressures on ecosystems and their relationship with conservation strategies through protected areas. To know the link between maintaining the supply of ecosystemic services, productive clusters increase, and some actions to reduce such services, we divide the variables into three groups: i.) Variables to quantify the supply of ecosystemic services; ii.) Economic development variables; iii.) Variables for measuring the loss of ecosystemic functions. Through the use of maps of the subregions of Antioquia, it was possible to know the occupancy rates of ecosystemic services as follows: deforestation and the loss of food provision services, regulation (mitigation of CO2 emissions, water supply provision and fertility of soil) as well as cultural (natural representativeness). We found, from all the variables of consumption of ecosystemic services considered, that no variable has a greater weight in relation to the others and that there seems to be a relationship between losses and gains of forests driven by the levels of the conservation strategies, since, in the subregions where the preservation measures are strict, forest gains are present; and, on the contrary, in subregions where sustainable development strategies predominate, such as the Integrated Management Districts –DMI–, deforestation rates are constant and higher. The results obtained indicate that the strategic ecosystems of the planet are very vulnerable to economic development and that territorial planning policies based on protected areas with a strict conservation nature are an appropriate strategy to reduce diversity losses and the consequent shortage of ecosystemic services, essential for humanity such as water supply provision, sustainable climate and global equilibrium

PATRONES DE FRECUENCIA Y ABUNDANCIA DE SISTEMAS DE DISPERSIÓN DE PLANTAS EN BOSQUES COLOMBIANOS Y SU RELACIÓN CON LAS REGIONES GEOGRÁFICAS DEL PAÍS

The study of plant dispersal systems allows to go in depth in aspects that define the regeneration of forests, being essential to understand not only the population dynamics of plants but also the ecological relationships that emerge within ecosystems. In Colombia there is not a broad scale study showing the patterns of frequency and abundance of dispersal systems in different geographical regions (Amazonian, Andean, Caribbean, Upper Magdalena, Middle Magdalena, Orinoco, Pacific). Based on information of the identity and abundance of plants found in 101 vegetation plots of 1-ha, we explored the differences and associations in the frequency and abundance of dispersal systems between geographic regions. Additionally, we explored the importance value of families and genera per dispersal system, and the association between genera and geographic regions. The results show that environmental factors would be more important than the biogeographic history of the region in determining patterns of dispersal systems, reinforcing the importance of seed dispersal mediated by animals in tropical forests of different biogeographic regions.El estudio de los sistemas de dispersión de las plantas permite entender la regeneración de los bosques, la dinámica poblacional de las plantas y las relaciones ecológicas que emergen dentro de los ecosistemas. En el presente estudio analizamos los patrones de sistemas de dispersión de semillas para Colombia, en relación con las regiones geográficas Amazónica, Andina, Caribe, Magdalena Alto, Magdalena Medio, Orinoquía y Pacífica. A partir de la información sobre la identidad y abundancia de plantas encontradas en 101 parcelas de vegetación de 1-ha, se exploraron los cambios en la frecuencia relativa y abundancia relativa de sistemas de dispersión entre las regiones geográficas. Adicionalmente, se determinaron las afinidades florísticas entre las regiones, así como la representatividad de las familias y géneros por sistema de dispersión. La endozoocoria fue altamente representativa en diferentes niveles taxonómicos (especie, género y familia), y su representatividad cambió entre las distintas regiones geográficas. Estos cambios podrían explicarse a partir de diferencias ecológicas entre las regiones

The number of tree species on Earth

One of the most fundamental questions in ecology is how many species inhabit the Earth. However, due to massive logistical and financial challenges and taxonomic difficulties connected to the species concept definition, the global numbers of species, including those of important and well-studied life forms such as trees, still remain largely unknown. Here, based on global groundsourced data, we estimate the total tree species richness at global, continental, and biome levels. Our results indicate that there are 73,000 tree species globally, among which ∼9,000 tree species are yet to be discovered. Roughly 40% of undiscovered tree species are in South America. Moreover, almost one-third of all tree species to be discovered may be rare, with very low populations and limited spatial distribution (likely in remote tropical lowlands and mountains). These findings highlight the vulnerability of global forest biodiversity to anthropogenic changes in land use and climate, which disproportionately threaten rare species and thus, global tree richness

The number of tree species on Earth.

One of the most fundamental questions in ecology is how many species inhabit the Earth. However, due to massive logistical and financial challenges and taxonomic difficulties connected to the species concept definition, the global numbers of species, including those of important and well-studied life forms such as trees, still remain largely unknown. Here, based on global ground-sourced data, we estimate the total tree species richness at global, continental, and biome levels. Our results indicate that there are ∼73,000 tree species globally, among which ∼9,000 tree species are yet to be discovered. Roughly 40% of undiscovered tree species are in South America. Moreover, almost one-third of all tree species to be discovered may be rare, with very low populations and limited spatial distribution (likely in remote tropical lowlands and mountains). These findings highlight the vulnerability of global forest biodiversity to anthropogenic changes in land use and climate, which disproportionately threaten rare species and thus, global tree richness

The number of tree species on Earth.

One of the most fundamental questions in ecology is how many species inhabit the Earth. However, due to massive logistical and financial challenges and taxonomic difficulties connected to the species concept definition, the global numbers of species, including those of important and well-studied life forms such as trees, still remain largely unknown. Here, based on global ground-sourced data, we estimate the total tree species richness at global, continental, and biome levels. Our results indicate that there are ∼73,000 tree species globally, among which ∼9,000 tree species are yet to be discovered. Roughly 40% of undiscovered tree species are in South America. Moreover, almost one-third of all tree species to be discovered may be rare, with very low populations and limited spatial distribution (likely in remote tropical lowlands and mountains). These findings highlight the vulnerability of global forest biodiversity to anthropogenic changes in land use and climate, which disproportionately threaten rare species and thus, global tree richness

Evenness mediates the global relationship between forest productivity and richness

1. Biodiversity is an important component of natural ecosystems, with higher species richness often correlating with an increase in ecosystem productivity. Yet, this relationship varies substantially across environments, typically becoming less pronounced at high levels of species richness. However, species richness alone cannot reflect all important properties of a community, including community evenness, which may mediate the relationship between biodiversity and productivity. If the evenness of a community correlates negatively with richness across forests globally, then a greater number of species may not always increase overall diversity and productivity of the system. Theoretical work and local empirical studies have shown that the effect of evenness on ecosystem functioning may be especially strong at high richness levels, yet the consistency of this remains untested at a global scale. 2. Here, we used a dataset of forests from across the globe, which includes composition, biomass accumulation and net primary productivity, to explore whether productivity correlates with community evenness and richness in a way that evenness appears to buffer the effect of richness. Specifically, we evaluated whether low levels of evenness in speciose communities correlate with the attenuation of the richness–productivity relationship. 3. We found that tree species richness and evenness are negatively correlated across forests globally, with highly speciose forests typically comprising a few dominant and many rare species. Furthermore, we found that the correlation between diversity and productivity changes with evenness: at low richness, uneven communities are more productive, while at high richness, even communities are more productive. 4. Synthesis. Collectively, these results demonstrate that evenness is an integral component of the relationship between biodiversity and productivity, and that the attenuating effect of richness on forest productivity might be partly explained by low evenness in speciose communities. Productivity generally increases with species richness, until reduced evenness limits the overall increases in community diversity. Our research suggests that evenness is a fundamental component of biodiversity–ecosystem function relationships, and is of critical importance for guiding conservation and sustainable ecosystem management decisions

Native diversity buffers against severity of non-native tree invasions

Determining the drivers of non-native plant invasions is critical for managing native ecosystems and limiting the spread of invasive species$^{1,2}$. Tree invasions in particular have been relatively overlooked, even though they have the potential to transform ecosystems and economies$^{3,4}$. Here, leveraging global tree databases$^{5,6,7}$, we explore how the phylogenetic and functional diversity of native tree communities, human pressure and the environment influence the establishment of non-native tree species and the subsequent invasion severity. We find that anthropogenic factors are key to predicting whether a location is invaded, but that invasion severity is underpinned by native diversity, with higher diversity predicting lower invasion severity. Temperature and precipitation emerge as strong predictors of invasion strategy, with non-native species invading successfully when they are similar to the native community in cold or dry extremes. Yet, despite the influence of these ecological forces in determining invasion strategy, we find evidence that these patterns can be obscured by human activity, with lower ecological signal in areas with higher proximity to shipping ports. Our global perspective of non-native tree invasion highlights that human drivers influence non-native tree presence, and that native phylogenetic and functional diversity have a critical role in the establishment and spread of subsequent invasions

The global biogeography of tree leaf form and habit

Understanding what controls global leaf type variation in trees is crucial for comprehending their role in terrestrial ecosystems, including carbon, water and nutrient dynamics. Yet our understanding of the factors influencing forest leaf types remains incomplete, leaving us uncertain about the global proportions of needle-leaved, broadleaved, evergreen and deciduous trees. To address these gaps, we conducted a global, ground-sourced assessment of forest leaf-type variation by integrating forest inventory data with comprehensive leaf form (broadleaf vs needle-leaf) and habit (evergreen vs deciduous) records. We found that global variation in leaf habit is primarily driven by isothermality and soil characteristics, while leaf form is predominantly driven by temperature. Given these relationships, we estimate that 38% of global tree individuals are needle-leaved evergreen, 29% are broadleaved evergreen, 27% are broadleaved deciduous and 5% are needle-leaved deciduous. The aboveground biomass distribution among these tree types is approximately 21% (126.4 Gt), 54% (335.7 Gt), 22% (136.2 Gt) and 3% (18.7 Gt), respectively. We further project that, depending on future emissions pathways, 17-34% of forested areas will experience climate conditions by the end of the century that currently support a different forest type, highlighting the intensification of climatic stress on existing forests. By quantifying the distribution of tree leaf types and their corresponding biomass, and identifying regions where climate change will exert greatest pressure on current leaf types, our results can help improve predictions of future terrestrial ecosystem functioning and carbon cycling

The global biogeography of tree leaf form and habit.

Understanding what controls global leaf type variation in trees is crucial for comprehending their role in terrestrial ecosystems, including carbon, water and nutrient dynamics. Yet our understanding of the factors influencing forest leaf types remains incomplete, leaving us uncertain about the global proportions of needle-leaved, broadleaved, evergreen and deciduous trees. To address these gaps, we conducted a global, ground-sourced assessment of forest leaf-type variation by integrating forest inventory data with comprehensive leaf form (broadleaf vs needle-leaf) and habit (evergreen vs deciduous) records. We found that global variation in leaf habit is primarily driven by isothermality and soil characteristics, while leaf form is predominantly driven by temperature. Given these relationships, we estimate that 38% of global tree individuals are needle-leaved evergreen, 29% are broadleaved evergreen, 27% are broadleaved deciduous and 5% are needle-leaved deciduous. The aboveground biomass distribution among these tree types is approximately 21% (126.4 Gt), 54% (335.7 Gt), 22% (136.2 Gt) and 3% (18.7 Gt), respectively. We further project that, depending on future emissions pathways, 17-34% of forested areas will experience climate conditions by the end of the century that currently support a different forest type, highlighting the intensification of climatic stress on existing forests. By quantifying the distribution of tree leaf types and their corresponding biomass, and identifying regions where climate change will exert greatest pressure on current leaf types, our results can help improve predictions of future terrestrial ecosystem functioning and carbon cycling