14-06 Development of Safety Performance Functions and Other Decision Support Tools to Assess Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety

A field study was performed at 40 uncontrolled midblock crosswalks and 26 signalized intersections on low-speed roadways selected from the areas surrounding three major urban college campuses across lower Michigan. An array of existing traffic control devices existed at the study sites, including various crosswalk marking strategies, along with additional treatments, such as pedestrian hybrid beacons (PHBs), rectangular rapid-flashing beacons (RRFBs) and single in-street R1-6 signs. The sites also collectively included a diverse set of roadway and traffic characteristics, including crossing widths, number of lanes, and median presence, along with vehicular, pedestrian, and bicyclist volumes. Three primary evaluations were performed for the midblock segments and signalized intersection study sites, including: driver yielding compliance, vehicle-pedestrian conflicts, and non-motorized traffic crash data. The yielding compliance study found that the type of crosswalk treatment has a strong influence over driver yielding compliance. While yielding compliance improves substantially when crosswalk markings are utilized, the highest compliance rates are achieved when an additional enhancement device (i.e., RRFB, PHB, or R1-6 sign), is also provided. To supplement small crash sample sizes at the study sites, Michigan statewide pedestrian and bicyclist crash data were collected and utilized to develop safety performance functions (SPFs) and other methods for predicting pedestrian and bicyclist crashes at road segments and intersections. Because pedestrian and bicyclist volumes were not available statewide, each model was developed for pedestrian and bicycle crashes based solely on vehicular AADT. In general, the models showed that pedestrian and bicycle crashes tend to increase with increasing traffic volumes. However, even in the highest volume cases, only a fraction of crashes involved a pedestrian or bicyclist. Pedestrian and bicycle crashes were further estimated based on the respective proportion of the Michigan specific SPF models for total crashes. The primary limitation towards prediction of pedestrian and bicycle crashes is the lack of a reliable exposure data to represent the amount of pedestrian or bicyclist activity on a given segment or intersection

Phylogeny of Iridaceae Subfamily Crocoideae Based on a Combined Multigene Plastid DNA Analysis

The phylogeny of Crocoideae, the largest of four subfamilies currently recognized in Tridaceae, has eluded resolution until sequences of two more plastid DNA regions were added here to a previously published matrix containing sequences from four DNA plastid regions. Sister to the core Nivenioideae, the woody Klattia, Nivenia, and Witsenia, Crocoideae are a climax group in lridaceae, comprising some 995 species, slightly more than half of the total in the family. Synapomorphies of Crocoideae include pollen exine perforate, pollen aperture operculate, ovule campylotropous (or hypotropous), root xylem vessels with simple perforations, cormous rootstock, inflorescence a spike, and plants deciduous. The six DNA region analysis here that includes examples of 27 of the 28 genera of the subfamily shows the southern African Tritoniopsis sister to the remaining genera, which resolve into four well-supported clusters (bootstrap support \u3e85%). Each of these major clades is treated as a tribe, the synapomorphies of which are discussed in light of the molecular phylogenetic analyses. Original embryological and seed developmental studies largely support the tribal classification. Tritoniopsideae alone has the inner floral bracts not forked apically, and a hypotropous ovule, while this tribe and Watsonieae have axillary corm development. The remaining three tribes have apical corm development, and together with Watsonieae have a campylotropous ovule, and the inner layer of the inner integument crushed at maturity

Genetics, recombination and clinical features of human rhinovirus species C (HRV-C) infections; interactions of HRV-C with other respiratory viruses

To estimate the frequency, molecular epidemiological and clinical associations of infection with the newly described species C variants of human rhinoviruses (HRV), 3243 diagnostic respiratory samples referred for diagnostic testing in Edinburgh were screened using a VP4-encoding region-based selective polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for HRV-C along with parallel PCR testing for 13 other respiratory viruses. HRV-C was the third most frequently detected behind respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and adenovirus, with 141 infection episodes detected among 1885 subjects over 13 months (7.5%). Infections predominantly targeted the very young (median age 6–12 months; 80% of infections in those <2 years), occurred throughout the year but with peak incidence in early winter months. HRV-C was detected significantly more frequently among subjects with lower (LRT) and upper respiratory tract (URT) disease than controls without respiratory symptoms; HRV-C mono-infections were the second most frequently detected virus (behind RSV) in both disease presentations (6.9% and 7.8% of all cases respectively). HRV variants were classified by VP4/VP2 sequencing into 39 genotypically defined types, increasing the current total worldwide to 60. Through sequence comparisons of the 5′untranslated region (5′UTR), the majority grouped with species A (n = 96; 68%, described as HRV-Ca), the remainder forming a phylogenetically distinct 5′UTR group (HRV-Cc). Multiple and bidirectional recombination events between HRV-Ca and HRV-Cc variants and with HRV species A represents the most parsimonious explanation for their interspersed phylogeny relationships in the VP4/VP2-encoding region. No difference in age distribution, seasonality or disease associations was identified between HRV-Ca and HRV-Cc variants. HRV-C-infected subjects showed markedly reduced detection frequencies of RSV and other respiratory viruses, providing evidence for a major interfering effect of HRV-C on susceptibility to other respiratory virus infections. HRV-C's disease associations, its prevalence and evidence for interfering effects on other respiratory viruses mandates incorporation of rhinoviruses into future diagnostic virology screening

Evaluation of the Nevada DOT Rest Area System: Recommendations to Reduce Gaps in Traveler Services

732-19-803Research was conducted to inform decisions related to the system of public rest area facilities owned by the Nevada Department of Transportation (NDOT). The initial steps of the research included collection of data related to the NDOT highway network (including road segment information, traffic volumes, and crashes), NDOT rest areas (including rest areas, basic rest stops, and welcome centers), and private facilities with comparable traveler services (e.g., bathrooms). These data were then analyzed to identify areas of unmet needs (i.e., service gaps) along the NDOT highway network that may be addressed by the inclusion of a new rest area facility or improvement to an existing facility. Additionally, the research also analyzed the safety performance impacts of roadside rest areas on the NDOT highway network. Based on these analyses, recommendations were made regarding: 1.) existing rest area facilities that should continue to be maintained at current levels, 2.) existing facilities that should be improved or relocated to fill gaps in traveler services and reduce crashes, and 3.) areas along the NDOT highway network where potential new facilities may be considered to fill gaps in traveler services and reduce crashes. The recommendations were based on meeting the needs of travelers on the NDOT highway network, with consideration given to the availability of both NDOT rest areas and comparable private facilities. To help prioritize the recommendations, benefit/cost ratios were computed to determine the economic viability for each proposed facility improvement by weighing the benefits to Nevada highway users against agency costs for each facility. A final list of recommended facility improvements was developed considering only those options that resulted in a benefit/cost ratio greater than 1.0

Work Zone Speed Limits and Motorist Compliance

This study sought to identify best practices for setting work zone speed limits by state departments of transportation (DOTs) and to evaluate select strategies for improving compliance with work zone speed limits. This was achieved by synthesizing information from a literature review, a state DOT survey, and field evaluations of select speed management strategies. The state DOT survey found that work zone speed limits are typically established based on the characteristics and conditions of the site, including permanent speed limit, facility type, worker presence, positive protection, work duration, and type and location of work activity. Work zone speed limit reductions of 10 mph are most frequently utilized on high-speed facility types, with further reductions provided based on worker presence in the absence of positive protection (e.g., concrete barrier). While the 10 mph speed limit reduction is often viewed as effective, the use of a 45 mph work zone speed limit when workers are present may require the use of additional speed reduction countermeasures to be effective. Research studies have generally shown several types of work zone speed management strategies, such as speed display signs, law enforcement, variable (dynamic) speed limits, temporary rumble strips, and portable changeable message sign (PCMS) messages, to be effective in reducing vehicle speeds in work zones. The work zone speed management strategies most frequently implemented by state DOTs include higher fines for speeding in work zones and lights on contractor or maintenance vehicles. While DOTs generally view law enforcement with an officer present as the most effective strategy for managing work zone speeds, they also perceive the availability of law enforcement as the greatest challenge to managing work zone speeds, followed by driver indifference and distracted drivers. Based on the findings from the literature review and DOT survey, a field study was performed to assess the effectiveness of two work zone speed management strategies, which included a speed feedback trailer (SFT) and law enforcement. In general, the magnitude of the speed reduction effects were greatest in the general proximity of the SFT. A second field evaluation assessed the effectiveness of a specialized work zone enforcement strategy. The visible presence of law enforcement activities at this location reduced work zone speeds by approximately 5 to 7 mph

Consistent phenological shifts in the making of a biodiversity hotspot: the Cape flora

Background The best documented survival responses of organisms to past climate change on short (glacial-interglacial) timescales are distributional shifts. Despite ample evidence on such timescales for local adaptations of populations at specific sites, the long-term impacts of such changes on evolutionary significant units in response to past climatic change have been little documented. Here we use phylogenies to reconstruct changes in distribution and flowering ecology of the Cape flora - South Africa's biodiversity hotspot - through a period of past (Neogene and Quaternary) changes in the seasonality of rainfall over a timescale of several million years. Results Forty-three distributional and phenological shifts consistent with past climatic change occur across the flora, and a comparable number of clades underwent adaptive changes in their flowering phenology (9 clades; half of the clades investigated) as underwent distributional shifts (12 clades; two thirds of the clades investigated). Of extant Cape angiosperm species, 14-41% have been contributed by lineages that show distributional shifts consistent with past climate change, yet a similar proportion (14-55%) arose from lineages that shifted flowering phenology. Conclusions Adaptive changes in ecology at the scale we uncover in the Cape and consistent with past climatic change have not been documented for other floras. Shifts in climate tolerance appear to have been more important in this flora than is currently appreciated, and lineages that underwent such shifts went on to contribute a high proportion of the flora's extant species diversity. That shifts in phenology, on an evolutionary timescale and on such a scale, have not yet been detected for other floras is likely a result of the method used; shifts in flowering phenology cannot be detected in the fossil record

A Diverse Group of Previously Unrecognized Human Rhinoviruses Are Common Causes of Respiratory Illnesses in Infants

Human rhinoviruses (HRVs) are the most prevalent human pathogens, and consist of 101 serotypes that are classified into groups A and B according to sequence variations. HRV infections cause a wide spectrum of clinical outcomes ranging from asymptomatic infection to severe lower respiratory symptoms. Defining the role of specific strains in various HRV illnesses has been difficult because traditional serology, which requires viral culture and neutralization tests using 101 serotype-specific antisera, is insensitive and laborious.To directly type HRVs in nasal secretions of infants with frequent respiratory illnesses, we developed a sensitive molecular typing assay based on phylogenetic comparisons of a 260-bp variable sequence in the 5' noncoding region with homologous sequences of the 101 known serotypes. Nasal samples from 26 infants were first tested with a multiplex PCR assay for respiratory viruses, and HRV was the most common virus found (108 of 181 samples). Typing was completed for 101 samples and 103 HRVs were identified. Surprisingly, 54 (52.4%) HRVs did not match any of the known serotypes and had 12-35% nucleotide divergence from the nearest reference HRVs. Of these novel viruses, 9 strains (17 HRVs) segregated from HRVA, HRVB and human enterovirus into a distinct genetic group ("C"). None of these new strains could be cultured in traditional cell lines.By molecular analysis, over 50% of HRV detected in sick infants were previously unrecognized strains, including 9 strains that may represent a new HRV group. These findings indicate that the number of HRV strains is considerably larger than the 101 serotypes identified with traditional diagnostic techniques, and provide evidence of a new HRV group

FReD: the Floral Reflectance Database - a web portal for analyses of flower colour

Background: Flower colour is of great importance in various fields relating to floral biology and pollinator behaviour. However, subjective human judgements of flower colour may be inaccurate and are irrelevant to the ecology and vision of the flower's pollinators. For precise, detailed information about the colours of flowers, a full reflectance spectrum for the flower of interest should be used rather than relying on such human assessments. Methodology/Principal Findings: The Floral Reflectance Database (FReD) has been developed to make an extensive collection of such data available to researchers. It is freely available at http://www.reflectance.co.uk. The database allows users to download spectral reflectance data for flower species collected from all over the world. These could, for example, be used in modelling interactions between pollinator vision and plant signals, or analyses of flower colours in various habitats. The database contains functions for calculating flower colour loci according to widely-used models of bee colour space, reflectance graphs of the spectra and an option to search for flowers with similar colours in bee colour space. Conclusions/Significance: The Floral Reflectance Database is a valuable new tool for researchers interested in the colours of flowers and their association with pollinator colour vision, containing raw spectral reflectance data for a large number of flower species