Bir Bilgi Tanımının Eleştirisi: Devvânî’nin Risâle fî Ta‘rîfi’l-‘İlm Bağlamında

Bu çalışmada, Celâleddîn ed-Devvânî’nin (öl. 908/1502) Risâle fî ta‘rîfi’l-‘ilm isimli risalesi tahlil edilmektedir. Risalede müteahhir dönem kimi kelamcıların benimsediği bir bilgi tanımı eleştirilmektedir. Araştırması yapılan bilgi tanımının üç bileşeni bulunmaktadır: Sıfat, temyiz ve çelişiğe ihtimali olmamak. Bilgi kategori olarak bir sıfattır. Bu sıfat ile temyiz elde edilir. Sonuç bilgidir ve bu bilginin çelişiğine ihtimali olmamalıdır. Devvânî bu bilgi tanımının sekiz ihtimalini incelemektedir. Sekiz ihtimalin her birinde farklı sorunlar ortaya çıkmaktadır. Devvânî’ye göre sözü edilen tanım, her ihtimale göre sorunludur. Fakat Devvânî eleştirdiği bilgi tanımının yerine başka bir bilgi tanımı önermemektedir. Makalede öncelikle kelam düşünce tarihinde sözü edilen bilgi tanımına ulaşma süreci anlatılacaktır. İlk dönemden itibaren yapılan bilgi tanımları özetlenecektir. Tanımların güçlü ve zayıf yönleri yorumlanacaktır. İslam düşüncesinde bilginin mahiyetine yönelik iki ana akım vardır: Fahreddin er-Râzî’nin (öl. 606/1210) başını çektiği ilk akıma göre mutlak bilgi bedihidir, tanımlanamaz. İkinci akıma göre mutlak bilginin mahiyeti nazarîdir, tanımlanabilir. Makaledeki ilk başlık İslam düşüncesinde bilgi tanımları ve eleştirileridir. Çalışmadaki ikinci başlık özgünlük iddiası taşımaktadır. Çünkü Devvânî’nin anılan risalesi ilk kez değerlendirilecektir. Risalenin sonucuna göre bilginin özünü bulmak için yapılan tanım, her açıdan temelsizdir. İslam düşünce tarihinde özcülük karşıtlığının bir yansıması olarak risalenin değerlendirilmesi önem arz etmektedir. Modern çalışmaların çoğu bu risaleyi Devvânî’nin eserleri arasında saymamaktadırlar. Hayreddin ez-Ziriklî (öl. 1976) tarafından kaleme alınan el-Aʿlâm adlı biyografi kitabında Risâle fî ta‘rîfi’l-‘ilm Devvânî’nin eserleri arasında sayılmıştır. Birden çok yazma nüshanın girişinde de eser, Devvânî’ye açıkça nispet edilmiştir. Çift taraflı yapılan araştırmalar sonucunda eserin müellife aidiyeti sağlanmıştır. Ancak aynı risaleyi içeren başka iki yazma nüshada eser, Şâirzâde isimli meçhul bir şahsa ait gibi gösterilmektedir. Fakat bu isimle ilgili herhangi bir bilgiye ulaşılmamıştır. Bu isim bir müellif olmaktan çok müstensih ismine benzemektedir. İki ismin birbirine karıştırılması sonucunda böyle bir yanlışlık olmuş gibi gözükmektedir. Devvânî’nin küçük hacimli bu risalesi dönemin ilmi atmosferine ve entelektüel seviyesine ışık tutacak niteliktedir. Adudüddîn Îcî’nin (öl. 756/1355) Mevâkıf adlı klasik kelam kitabında sözü edilen bilgi tanımı diğer bilgi tanımlarından üstün tutulmaktadır. Kusursuz olarak takdim edilen bu bilgi tanımı yerine Cürcânî (öl. 816/1413) Şerh-i Mevâkıf’ta Mâtürîdî’ye (öl. 333/944) atfedilen bilgi tanımını tercih etmiştir. Bu tercih, Devvânî’nin de içinde bulunduğu gelecek kuşaklar için örtük bir eleştiri kabul edilmiştir. Cürcânî’nin gelişigüzel tercih de bulunmadığı yorumunu yapanlar, tanımın üzerine giderek eleştirileri devam ettirmiştir. Risalede ortaya konulan ince işçilik, eleştirel düşüncenin yoğun bir şekilde işletildiğini gözler önüne sermektedir. Risalenin doğru anlaşılması mantık ilminin bilinmesine ve takip edilmesi ise yoğun bir dikkate bağlıdır. Mantık ilminin tasavvur, tasdik, hüküm, nakz gibi kavramlarından alınan yardımla bilginin tanımı çeşitli açılar incelenmektedir. Mantık ilminde kesin, zan, taklit, şüphe gibi bilginin her türlü katmanı tek tek araştırılmaktadır. Kelam ilminde ise bilginin ideal düzeyi olan kesin olmasına dikkat edilmektedir. Kesin olmayan bir bilinen, kelam ilminde bilgi sayılmamaktadır. Çünkü kelamcıların temel hedefi, dinî inançları kesin bilgi üzerine inşa etmektir. Kesin olmayan, muhtemel bilginin başka bir şeye temel olması yanlıştır. Bilinenler arasındaki bir bilginin kesinlik düzeyine ulaşması için doğru olması ve diğer ihtimalleri dışarıda bırakması gerekmektedir. Devvânî’nin risalesinde incelediği bilgi tanımındaki kesinlik için koşulan diğer şart aksinin yanlış olmasıdır. Bir bilginin kesin doğru sayılması tersinin yanlış olmasına bağlıdır. İşte bu risalede ihtimal dışı bırakılmak istenen çelişiklerin veya çelişkinin nerede aranacağı tartışılmaktadır. Bilgi, insan zihninden, dış dünyadan veya ikisi arasındaki ilişkinin kendisinden ayrılmamaktadır. Öyleyse çelişki bu üç alanda aranmalıdır. Risalede Devvânî bilgi tanımını bu üç alanı dikkate alarak eleştirmektedir

Nosocomial Oral Myiasis by Sarcophaga sp. in Turkey

We present a case of oral myiasis in a 15-year-old boy with tuberculosis meningitis. The diagnosis was based on the visual presence of wriggling larvae about 1 cm in size and on the microscopic features of the maggots, especially those relating to stigmatic structures. The larvae were identified as third-stage larvae of Sarcophaga sp

The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe

By sequencing 727 ancient individuals from the Southern Arc (Anatolia and its neighbors in Southeastern Europe and West Asia) over 10,000 years, we contextualize its Chalcolithic period and Bronze Age (about 5000 to 1000 BCE), when extensive gene flow entangled it with the Eurasian steppe. Two streams of migration transmitted Caucasus and Anatolian/Levantine ancestry northward, and the Yamnaya pastoralists, formed on the steppe, then spread southward into the Balkans and across the Caucasus into Armenia, where they left numerous patrilineal descendants. Anatolia was transformed by intra–West Asian gene flow, with negligible impact of the later Yamnaya migrations. This contrasts with all other regions where Indo-European languages were spoken, suggesting that the homeland of the Indo-Anatolian language family was in West Asia, with only secondary dispersals of non-Anatolian Indo-Europeans from the steppe

Mortality from gastrointestinal congenital anomalies at 264 hospitals in 74 low-income, middle-income, and high-income countries: a multicentre, international, prospective cohort study

Summary Background Congenital anomalies are the fifth leading cause of mortality in children younger than 5 years globally. Many gastrointestinal congenital anomalies are fatal without timely access to neonatal surgical care, but few studies have been done on these conditions in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). We compared outcomes of the seven most common gastrointestinal congenital anomalies in low-income, middle-income, and high-income countries globally, and identified factors associated with mortality. Methods We did a multicentre, international prospective cohort study of patients younger than 16 years, presenting to hospital for the first time with oesophageal atresia, congenital diaphragmatic hernia, intestinal atresia, gastroschisis, exomphalos, anorectal malformation, and Hirschsprung’s disease. Recruitment was of consecutive patients for a minimum of 1 month between October, 2018, and April, 2019. We collected data on patient demographics, clinical status, interventions, and outcomes using the REDCap platform. Patients were followed up for 30 days after primary intervention, or 30 days after admission if they did not receive an intervention. The primary outcome was all-cause, in-hospital mortality for all conditions combined and each condition individually, stratified by country income status. We did a complete case analysis. Findings We included 3849 patients with 3975 study conditions (560 with oesophageal atresia, 448 with congenital diaphragmatic hernia, 681 with intestinal atresia, 453 with gastroschisis, 325 with exomphalos, 991 with anorectal malformation, and 517 with Hirschsprung’s disease) from 264 hospitals (89 in high-income countries, 166 in middleincome countries, and nine in low-income countries) in 74 countries. Of the 3849 patients, 2231 (58·0%) were male. Median gestational age at birth was 38 weeks (IQR 36–39) and median bodyweight at presentation was 2·8 kg (2·3–3·3). Mortality among all patients was 37 (39·8%) of 93 in low-income countries, 583 (20·4%) of 2860 in middle-income countries, and 50 (5·6%) of 896 in high-income countries (p<0·0001 between all country income groups). Gastroschisis had the greatest difference in mortality between country income strata (nine [90·0%] of ten in lowincome countries, 97 [31·9%] of 304 in middle-income countries, and two [1·4%] of 139 in high-income countries; p≤0·0001 between all country income groups). Factors significantly associated with higher mortality for all patients combined included country income status (low-income vs high-income countries, risk ratio 2·78 [95% CI 1·88–4·11], p<0·0001; middle-income vs high-income countries, 2·11 [1·59–2·79], p<0·0001), sepsis at presentation (1·20 [1·04–1·40], p=0·016), higher American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) score at primary intervention (ASA 4–5 vs ASA 1–2, 1·82 [1·40–2·35], p<0·0001; ASA 3 vs ASA 1–2, 1·58, [1·30–1·92], p<0·0001]), surgical safety checklist not used (1·39 [1·02–1·90], p=0·035), and ventilation or parenteral nutrition unavailable when needed (ventilation 1·96, [1·41–2·71], p=0·0001; parenteral nutrition 1·35, [1·05–1·74], p=0·018). Administration of parenteral nutrition (0·61, [0·47–0·79], p=0·0002) and use of a peripherally inserted central catheter (0·65 [0·50–0·86], p=0·0024) or percutaneous central line (0·69 [0·48–1·00], p=0·049) were associated with lower mortality. Interpretation Unacceptable differences in mortality exist for gastrointestinal congenital anomalies between lowincome, middle-income, and high-income countries. Improving access to quality neonatal surgical care in LMICs will be vital to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 3.2 of ending preventable deaths in neonates and children younger than 5 years by 2030

Eleştirinin Eleştirisi: Bilgi Tanımı Bağlamında Hüsâm Çelebi’nin Hatibzâde Tenkidi

Since the early period of Islamic thought, studies on the subject of existence, knowledge, and value have been made by theologians. While some theology-philosophy books started with the subject of existence, some of them started with the subject of knowledge. It is known that knowledge is closely related to faith. Due to this close contact, theologians have built their philosophy of knowledge around titles such as the definition, limits, sources, and possibilities of knowledge. Rather than discussing faith, which has a predominant subjective aspect, the field of knowledge, which is a more objective field, has been highlighted. Thanks to the transfer of faith to the knowledge field, people were able to conduct their discussions on rational grounds. It is foreseen that the issue will be inconclusive when faith is discussed alone. Every person is free to believe anything, regardless of right or wrong, but the same freedom does not exist in the field of knowledge. Knowledge has an objective and controllable structure. Therefore anyone who is trying to convey his or his/her belief to others should definitely explain his/her belief on a rational basis. Belief should be brought closer to knowledge in order to spread the sharing of faith. Belief cannot be examined, but knowledge cannot be ruled out. The close relationship between knowledge with belief should not be overlooked. On account of this for theologians faith and belief consist of affirmation. So what is knowledge, what does it mean to know? Is knowing the same as believing? Is the person who says he knows something different from the person who says he believes something? All these questions seem to necessitate the definition of knowledge as well as belief. The definition of knowledge changes according to schools and scholars in Islamic thought. Some scholars claim that absolute knowledge cannot be defined by counting its self-evident (badīhī). However, according to the great majority, knowledge is theoretical, and therefore its definition can be made. In the history of kalām, many definitions of knowledge have been made and criticized. In the article, the definition of knowledge as “an adjective that obliges to differentiate” will be investigated. According to this definition, another important feature of knowledge is that differentiation is not likely to contradict. In the final analysis, the category of knowledge is an adjective. Through the agency of this adjective, the subject knows. Knowledge is a separate activity. For something known to be knowledge, it must be certain and not otherwise likely. An imprecise comprehension is not considered knowledge according to theologians. This kind of knowledge definition, which was presented perfectly in the theological books of the late period, was criticized by Khaṭībzāde (d. 901/1496) from ten aspects. Ḥusām Çelebi (d. 926/1520), on the other hand, found all ten criticisms of Khaṭībzāde weak in different aspects. Çelebi found all ten criticisms of Khaṭībzāde weak in different aspects. In the article, first Khaṭībzāde’s criticisms will be explained in order, then Çelebi’s counter-criticism will be examined and strengths and weaknesses in the statements of both will be pointed out.</p

Kurucu Kök Metin Fıkhü’l-ekber’in Otantikliği Sorunu ve Osmanlı Ulemasının Katkısı I

The foundations of almost all Islamic sciences were laid in the first and second centuries of the hijra. With the expansion of the Islamic world since the first century of hijra, the existence of a collective effort to transfer oral information into writing is notable. With the invitation of the prophet Muḥammad to Islam, an unprecedented increase in the culture of writing has been observed. Since the emergence of Islam, the world history scene has witnessed feverish writing activity. Especially in the 2nd/8th century, when the transition from oral culture to written culture accelerated, the founding texts of the science of language and religion, which were the carriers of these sciences related to aqāid-kalām, fiqh and uṣūl al-fiqh, tasawwuf, tafsir, and hadith, were compiled. Thanks to the founding texts containing the basic principles, the sciences have had the opportunity to develop by deepening. In this study, the contribution of Fiqh al-akbar, the founding text of the science of creed, to the science of kalam, which has made significant progress, will be discussed. In order for a text to be considered a founding and root, there must be a system that it establishes as the fruit of the tree. In this sense, Fiqh al-akbar established a moderate and defensible belief system. There is an organic link between the most concise faith texts and the most voluminous kalām books. While the creed texts, which consist of writing the goals at the end of the road, are the counting of the principles of faith, the texts of the kalām represent the walking of the road that leads to the goal of faith. Fiqh al-akbar, which marks the end of the road by finishing the roads to be walked, is the first and most important of the milestones of Islamic thought. In this study, the contribution of Fiqh al-akbar, the founding text of the science of aqāid, to the science of kalām will be discussed in the context of its belonging to its author. This text gave direction to Ahl al-Sunna theology, which would be written in the later stages of Islamic thought. In this study, the internal and external contexts of the founding text mentioned will be confirmed in terms of its relative acumen to Abū Ḥanīfa. In addition, the reason for the increase in the commentaries (Sharḥ) of Fiqh al-akbar during the Ottoman period will be shown. As a matter of fact, each annotation strengthens that it belongs to the author. In the annotations, there is no sentence stating that the text does not belong to Abū Ḥanīfa, on the contrary, the authenticity of the belonging is emphasized. Of course, not all the annotations of the relevant text will be included here, but mostly printed works will be emphasized. Theology, prophecy, and the hereafter are discussed in Fiqh al-akbar. Here, how theological debates and problems related to the history of theological concepts are handled in the commentaries will be shown. In this article, within the framework of the method discussed as an example, preparation will be made for further studies to evaluate the topics and concepts of prophecy and the hereafter in the context of commentaries. The point that should be emphasized here is that none of the scholars who commented on the text pointed out that the subject or concept was not discussed in the period of Abū Ḥanīfa. Moreover, from the early period until as late as the 7nd/13th century, both theology and bibliography books did not have any doubts about the belonging of Fiqh al-akbar to Abū Ḥanīfa. Moreover, since the early period, both theological and bibliographical works did not have any doubts about Fiqh al-akbar’s belonging to Abū Ḥanīfa.</p