Diminishing benefits of urban living for children and adolescents’ growth and development

A list of authors and their affiliations appears online.Optimal growth and development in childhood and adolescence is crucial for lifelong health and well-being. Here we used data from 2,325 population-based studies, with measurements of height and weight from 71 million participants, to report the height and body-mass index (BMI) of children and adolescents aged 5–19 years on the basis of rural and urban place of residence in 200 countries and territories from 1990 to 2020. In 1990, children and adolescents residing in cities were taller than their rural counterparts in all but a few high-income countries. By 2020, the urban height advantage became smaller in most countries, and in many high-income western countries it reversed into a small urban-based disadvantage. The exception was for boys in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa and in some countries in Oceania, south Asia and the region of central Asia, Middle East and north Africa. In these countries, successive cohorts of boys from rural places either did not gain height or possibly became shorter, and hence fell further behind their urban peers. The difference between the age-standardized mean BMI of children in urban and rural areas was <1.1 kg m–2 in the vast majority of countries. Within this small range, BMI increased slightly more in cities than in rural areas, except in south Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and some countries in central and eastern Europe. Our results show that in much of the world, the growth and developmental advantages of living in cities have diminished in the twenty-first century, whereas in much of sub-Saharan Africa they have amplified.peer-reviewe

Worldwide trends in underweight and obesity from 1990 to 2022: a pooled analysis of 3663 population-representative studies with 222 million children, adolescents, and adults

Background Underweight and obesity are associated with adverse health outcomes throughout the life course. We estimated the individual and combined prevalence of underweight or thinness and obesity, and their changes, from 1990 to 2022 for adults and school-aged children and adolescents in 200 countries and territories. Methods We used data from 3663 population-based studies with 222 million participants that measured height and weight in representative samples of the general population. We used a Bayesian hierarchical model to estimate trends in the prevalence of different BMI categories, separately for adults (age ≥20 years) and school-aged children and adolescents (age 5–19 years), from 1990 to 2022 for 200 countries and territories. For adults, we report the individual and combined prevalence of underweight (BMI 2 SD above the median). Findings From 1990 to 2022, the combined prevalence of underweight and obesity in adults decreased in 11 countries (6%) for women and 17 (9%) for men with a posterior probability of at least 0·80 that the observed changes were true decreases. The combined prevalence increased in 162 countries (81%) for women and 140 countries (70%) for men with a posterior probability of at least 0·80. In 2022, the combined prevalence of underweight and obesity was highest in island nations in the Caribbean and Polynesia and Micronesia, and countries in the Middle East and north Africa. Obesity prevalence was higher than underweight with posterior probability of at least 0·80 in 177 countries (89%) for women and 145 (73%) for men in 2022, whereas the converse was true in 16 countries (8%) for women, and 39 (20%) for men. From 1990 to 2022, the combined prevalence of thinness and obesity decreased among girls in five countries (3%) and among boys in 15 countries (8%) with a posterior probability of at least 0·80, and increased among girls in 140 countries (70%) and boys in 137 countries (69%) with a posterior probability of at least 0·80. The countries with highest combined prevalence of thinness and obesity in school-aged children and adolescents in 2022 were in Polynesia and Micronesia and the Caribbean for both sexes, and Chile and Qatar for boys. Combined prevalence was also high in some countries in south Asia, such as India and Pakistan, where thinness remained prevalent despite having declined. In 2022, obesity in school-aged children and adolescents was more prevalent than thinness with a posterior probability of at least 0·80 among girls in 133 countries (67%) and boys in 125 countries (63%), whereas the converse was true in 35 countries (18%) and 42 countries (21%), respectively. In almost all countries for both adults and school-aged children and adolescents, the increases in double burden were driven by increases in obesity, and decreases in double burden by declining https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/images/research_banner_face_lab_290.jpgunderweight or thinness. Interpretation The combined burden of underweight and obesity has increased in most countries, driven by an increase in obesity, while underweight and thinness remain prevalent in south Asia and parts of Africa. A healthy nutrition transition that enhances access to nutritious foods is needed to address the remaining burden of underweight while curbing and reversing the increase in obesity

Домакинствата и финансовите потоци в българската икономика

В настоящото изследване е направен опит за оценка на финансовите потоци, минаващи през сектора на домакинствата в България за периода 1990-1993 г., въз основа на която са изследвани финансовите взаимоотношения на сектор домакинства с останалите сектори в икономиката (нефинансови предприятия, държавен и финансов сектор). Разгледана са брутната и нетна норма на спестяване на домакинствата и са представени факторите, оказващи влияние върху тяхната динамика. Спестяванията на домакинствата са разгледани и в макроикономически аспект и е направена оценка за възможностите на населението да кредитира нетните длъжници в икономиката през годините на стабилизация.домакинства; институционални сектори; финансови потоци; брутна норма на спестяване на домакинствата; нетна норма на спестяване на домакинствата

Households and Financial Flows in the Bulgarian Economy

This article offers an attempt at analyzing financial flows to and out of the households sector in Bulgaria in 1990-1993 and the financial relations of the sector to the other institutional sectors (non-financial enterprises, budget and financial sectors). Gross and net saving rates of households are estimated and are analyzed the main factors, influence on their dynamics. The article also presents an analysis of household saving rate in a macroeconomic context in order to estimate the possibilities for households to credit the net debtors on the economy in the stabilization years.household sector; institutional sectors; financial flows; gross saving rate of households; net saving rate of households

Price Controls and Inflation in Bulgaria, 1991-1992

The current study aims to characterize price controls and inflation dynamics in Bulgaria on the path to market prices. The conclusions made on the importance and intensity of the inflation process are based on the consumer price index as well as on the retail prices data.inflation; price controls; price liberalisation

Ценовият контрол и инфлацията в България през 1991-1992 година

Целта на настоящия анализ е да се характеризира ценовия контрол и инфлационните процеси в България след стартирането на процеса на преминаване към пазарно ценообразуване. Изводите за мащабите и интензивността на инфлационите процеси се правят на основата на индексите на потребителски цени и цените на дребно.инфлация; ценови контрол; ценова либерализация

Инфлацията и лихвения процент през 1991 г.

Целта на този анализ на Агенцията за икономическо програмиране и развитие е да фиксира параметрите на инфлацията на основа на съществуващите измерители и чрез построяването на някои оригинални индекси. Специално внимание е отделено на оценките за равнището на реалните лихвени проценти през 1991 г.инфлация; цени на потребител; цени на производител; лихвен процент

Effects of the Particle Size Distribution and of the Electrolyte Salt on the Intercalation Properties of <i>P</i>3‑Na_2/3Ni_1/2Mn_1/2O₂

Sodium-deficient nickel–manganese oxides with a layered type of structure are, nowadays, of great interest as electrode materials for both lithium- and sodium-ion batteries since they are able to intercalate lithium and sodium ions reversibly within a broad concentration range. Herein, we report new data on the effects of the particle sizes and of the electrolyte salt on the intercalation properties of Na_2/3Ni_0.5Mn_0.5O₂ with a <i>P</i>3-type of structure. The morphology of layered Na_2/3Ni_0.5Mn_0.5O₂ oxides has been varied by changing the type of the precursor used: from Na–Ni–Mn acetates to Na–Ni–Mn mixed nitrate acetates. The structure, particle dimensions, and particle size distribution of oxides have been determined by means of powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), dynamic light-scattering measurements, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The intercalation properties of Na_2/3Ni_0.5Mn_0.5O₂ have been studied in model electrochemical cells versus Li metal as the anode. We used two kinds of lithium salts dissolved in organic solutions as the electrolytes: 1 M LiPF₆ in EC:DMC and 1 M LiBF₄ in EC:DMC. The mechanism of the lithium intercalation into Na_2/3Ni_0.5Mn_0.5O₂ is discussed on the basis of <i>e</i><i>x situ</i> XRD, HRTEM, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses. It has been discovered that the lithium salt in the electrolyte salt contributes to the mechanism of the electrochemical reaction, while particle dimensions determine the capacity stability during continuous cycling, as well as the surface reactivity of oxide electrodes

Diminishing benefits of urban living for children and adolescents’ growth and development

Optimal growth and development in childhood and adolescence is crucial for lifelong health and well-being1–6. Here we used data from 2,325 population-based studies, with measurements of height and weight from 71 million participants, to report the height and body-mass index (BMI) of children and adolescents aged 5–19 years on the basis of rural and urban place of residence in 200 countries and territories from 1990 to 2020. In 1990, children and adolescents residing in cities were taller than their rural counterparts in all but a few high-income countries. By 2020, the urban height advantage became smaller in most countries, and in many high-income western countries it reversed into a small urban-based disadvantage. The exception was for boys in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa and in some countries in Oceania, south Asia and the region of central Asia, Middle East and north Africa. In these countries, successive cohorts of boys from rural places either did not gain height or possibly became shorter, and hence fell further behind their urban peers. The difference between the age-standardized mean BMI of children in urban and rural areas was <1.1 kg m–2 in the vast majority of countries. Within this small range, BMI increased slightly more in cities than in rural areas, except in south Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and some countries in central and eastern Europe. Our results show that in much of the world, the growth and developmental advantages of living in cities have diminished in the twenty-first century, whereas in much of sub-Saharan Africa they have amplified