Vocabulary Learning During Reading: Benefits of Contextual Inferences Versus Retrieval Opportunities

Retrieval practice of isolated words (e.g., with flashcards) enhances foreign vocabulary learning. However, vocabulary is often encountered in context. We investigated whether retrieval opportunities also enhance contextualized word learning. In two within-subjects experiments, participants encoded 24 foreign words and then read a story to further strengthen word knowledge. The story contained eight target words in a retrieval context, which required participants to recall word meaning from memory to understand the text (e.g., “She borrowed a knyga”), and eight target words in an inference context from which meaning could be inferred (e.g., “She read a knyga” [book]). After 1 to 2 days, a posttest measured word retention. Reading the words in either the retrieval or inference context increased retention, compared to control words not included in the story. Moreover, in Experiment 1, retention was significantly higher in the inference than in the retrieval condition. In Experiment 2, in which encoding before reading was more extensive and feedback was available, no differences in retention were found between the inference and retrieval + feedback condition (both increased retention, compared to control words). Overall, the findings suggest that the benefits of retrieval may be less pronounced during incidental, contextualized learning than during intentional exercises and that retrieval success must be considered when adding retrieval opportunities to contextualized learning. Under low retrieval success, the better comprehension afforded by an informative context may outweigh the benefits of retrieval opportunities (Exp.1). Yet even when retrieval success was enhanced and feedback was added (Exp. 2), retrieval opportunities were only as beneficial as exposure to rich contextual information

Dietary fructo-oligosaccharides and latulose inhibit intestinal colonisation but stimulate translocation of salmonella in rats

Background and aims: It is frequently assumed that dietary non-digestible carbohydrates improve host resistance to intestinal infections by stimulating the protective gut microflora. However, compelling scientific evidence from in vivo infection studies is lacking. Therefore, we studied the effect of several non-digestible carbohydrates on the resistance of rats to Salmonella enteritidis infection. Methods: Rats (n = 8 per group) were fed "humanised'' purified diets containing 4% lactulose, fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), resistant starch, wheat fibre, or cellulose. After an adaptation period of 2 weeks the animals were orally infected with S enteritidis. Supplement induced changes in faecal biochemical and microbiological parameters were studied before infection. Colonisation of salmonella was determined by studying the faecal excretion of this pathogen and translocation by analysis of urinary nitric oxide metabolites over time and classical organ cultures. Intestinal mucosal myeloperoxidase activity was determined to quantify intestinal inflammation after infection. Results: Despite stimulation of intestinal lactobacilli and bifidobacteria and inhibition of salmonella colonisation, FOS and lactulose significantly enhanced translocation of this pathogen. These supplements also increased cytotoxicity of faecal water and faecal mucin excretion, which may reflect mucosal irritation. In addition, caecal and colonic, but not ileal, mucosal myeloperoxidase activity was increased in infected rats fed FOS and lactulose. In contrast, cellulose, wheat fibre, and resistant starch did not affect the resistance to salmonella. Conclusions: In contrast to most expectations, FOS and lactulose impair the resistance of rats to intestinal salmonella infection. Obviously, stimulation of the endogenous lactobacilli and bifidobacteria is no guarantee of improved host defence against intestinal infections

Little and large: body size and genetic clines in a New Zealand gecko (Woodworthia maculata) along a coastal transect

Clinal variation can result from primary differentiation or secondary contact and determining which of these two processes is responsible for the existence of a cline is not a trivial problem. Samples from a coastal transect of New Zealand geckos (Woodworthia maculata) identified for the first time a body size cline 7–10 km wide. The larger geckos are almost twice the mass of the small adult geckos. Clines in allele and haplotype frequency were found at two of the four genetic loci examined. Estimated width of the morphological cline was concordant with neither the narrower mtDNA cline (3–7 m) nor the wider nuclear cline (RAG-2; 34–42 km), and cline centers were not coincident. Although the body size cline is narrow compared to the entire range of the species, it is 2–3 orders of magnitude greater than estimates of dispersal distance per generation for these geckos. No evidence of assortative mating, nor of hybrid disadvantage was identified, thus there is little evidence to infer that endogenous selection is maintaining a hybrid zone. We cannot distinguish secondary contact from primary origin of this body size cline but conclude that secondary contact is likely due to the occurrence of mtDNA haplotypes from three distinct clades within the coastal transect and the presence of two frequency clines within this region

Trade in live reptiles, its impact on wild populations, and the role of the European market

Of the 10,272 currently recognized reptile species, the trade of fewer than 8% are regulated by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the European Wildlife Trade Regulations (EWTR). However, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List has assessed 45% of the world's reptile species and determined that at least 1390 species are threatened by “biological resource use”. Of these, 355 species are intentionally targeted by collectors, including 194 non-CITES-listed species. Herein we review the global reptile pet trade, its impacts, and its contribution to the over-harvesting of species and populations, in light of current international law. Findings are based on an examination of relevant professional observations, online sources, and literature (e.g., applicable policies, taxonomy [reptile database], trade statistics [EUROSTAT], and conservation status [IUCN Red List]). Case studies are presented from the following countries and regions: Australia, Central America, China, Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), Germany, Europe, India, Indonesia (Kalimantan), Islamic Republic of Iran, Japan, Madagascar, Mexico, New Zealand, the Philippines, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Western Africa, and Western Asia. The European Union (EU) plays a major role in reptile trade. Between 2004 and 2014 (the period under study), the EU member states officially reported the import of 20,788,747 live reptiles. This review suggests that illegal trade activities involve species regulated under CITES, as well as species that are not CITES-regulated but nationally protected in their country of origin and often openly offered for sale in the EU. Further, these case studies demonstrate that regulations and enforcement in several countries are inadequate to prevent the overexploitation of species and to halt illegal trade activities

Diverse aging rates in ectothermic tetrapods provide insights for the evolution of aging and longevity

Comparative studies of mortality in the wild are necessary to understand the evolution of aging; yet, ectothermic tetrapods are underrepresented in this comparative landscape, despite their suitability for testing evolutionary hypotheses. We present a study of aging rates and longevity across wild tetrapod ectotherms, using data from 107 populations (77 species) of nonavian reptiles and amphibians. We test hypotheses of how thermoregulatory mode, environmental temperature, protective phenotypes, and pace of life history contribute to demographic aging. Controlling for phylogeny and body size, ectotherms display a higher diversity of aging rates compared with endotherms and include phylogenetically widespread evidence of negligible aging. Protective phenotypes and life-history strategies further explain macroevolutionary patterns of aging. Analyzing ectothermic tetrapods in a comparative context enhances our understanding of the evolution of aging.Animal science

Conservation genetics of island takahe (Porphyrio mantelli)

ii, 66 leaves : ill. ; 30 cm. A research report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Diploma in Wildlife Management. University of Otago department: Zoology. University of Otago Wildlife Management Report; no. 96.General introduction: Conservation of biodiversity is one the most important contemporary global problems faced by humanity. Human activity has caused the extinction of more than a thousand vertebrate species over the last century (Altukhov, 1994), with many more currently on the verge of extinction. As remaining natural areas continue to decline in size and become fragmented, an increasing number of species will require monitoring and management to ensure their persistence. New Zealand contains 11% of the world's endangered bird species (Reed and Merton, 1990). For many of these species, management options are limited to preserving relic populations and their habitats on the mainland, and/or maintaining a number of small populations on predator-free offshore islands. New Zealand has over 500 offshore islands, a large proportion of which are designated sanctuaries or nature reserves (Mortimer et al., 1996). Over the last decade, awareness and concern over genetic problems potentially faced by small populations has grown considerably. Issues of particular concern are the maintenance of genetic variation and effects of inbreeding. This project constitutes an investigation into genetic issues related to the management of the takahe (Porphyria mantelli), a large, flightless rail endemic to New Zealand. Presumed extinct until their "rediscovery" in 1948, just one relict population of -120 individuals remains in the Murchison Mountains, Fiordland. In addition, four small populations have been established on predator-free islands since 1984 (Crouchley, 1994). This project consists of two separate but inter-related chapters. Chapter One addresses the mating system and levels of genetic variation of takahe breeding on islands. Chapter Two assesses the effects of inbreeding on the reproductive success of island takahe. Conclusions and management recommendations are considered in the final part of this report. Some repetition is a consequence of this approach

A novel nuclear antigen

The human oestrogen receptor (hER) mediates some effects of the steroid hormone oestrogen and functions as a ligand-dependent transcription factor in the nuclei of oestrogen-sensitive cells. The measurement of hER levels in breast cancer biopsies provides useful clinical information regarding therapy and prognosis. The current study describes a monoclonal antibody raised against hER aa 497-507 which recognises a novel nuclear antigen. Monoclonal antibodies were raised by immunising mice with a synthetic fragment of the hER (aa 497-507) conjugated to keyhole lymphocyte haemocyanin. Thirty antibody secreting hybridomas were identified. Hybridoma supernatants were characterised by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunological staining using MCF-7 cells, binding studies, and SDS-PAGE Western blotting. One supernatant (15F6) displayed nuclear staining in fixed MCF -7 cells. Staining could be abolished by pre-incubation of the supernatant with the aa 497-507 peptide and peptide conjugates, but not with an unrelated hER peptide (aa 256-275). This antibody also stained the nuclei of hER negative breast cell lines MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-330, the breast cell line T47D, and liver cell line HepG2. Immunological staining of human tissue sections reveal the antigen to be present in the nuclei of keratocytes in skin and tubule and luminal endothelial cells of the kidney. The antibody identified a 120 kD band on Western blots with cytosols prepared from human breast cell lines and in solubilised cells. The antibody does not precipitate 16a-iodooestradiol-labelled ER from MCF-7 cells. Expression-linked screening of the MCF-7 cDNA library with antibody 15F6 identified nine positive clones. Antibody staining could be blocked by pre-incubating the antibody with hER aa 497-507-BSA conjugate, but not with an unrelated hER peptide conjugate. The (260 bp) clones were found to be identical. Submission of sequence to BLAST protein and nucleotide databases revealed a lack of homology to known proteins and genes. Sequence was matched to expressed sequence tags (ESTs) from brain, liver/spleen, uterus, ovary, colon, heart, and placenta. To further define the epitope of antibody 15F6, the sequence was translated and three peptides containing potential epitopes, comparable to the hER aa 497-507 region, were synthesised and tested by ELISA. The putative epitope was shown to be contained within one of these peptides

Conservation genetics of island takahe (Porphyrio mantelli)

ii, 66 leaves : ill. ; 30 cm. A research report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Diploma in Wildlife Management. University of Otago department: Zoology. University of Otago Wildlife Management Report; no. 96.General introduction: Conservation of biodiversity is one the most important contemporary global problems faced by humanity. Human activity has caused the extinction of more than a thousand vertebrate species over the last century (Altukhov, 1994), with many more currently on the verge of extinction. As remaining natural areas continue to decline in size and become fragmented, an increasing number of species will require monitoring and management to ensure their persistence. New Zealand contains 11% of the world's endangered bird species (Reed and Merton, 1990). For many of these species, management options are limited to preserving relic populations and their habitats on the mainland, and/or maintaining a number of small populations on predator-free offshore islands. New Zealand has over 500 offshore islands, a large proportion of which are designated sanctuaries or nature reserves (Mortimer et al., 1996). Over the last decade, awareness and concern over genetic problems potentially faced by small populations has grown considerably. Issues of particular concern are the maintenance of genetic variation and effects of inbreeding. This project constitutes an investigation into genetic issues related to the management of the takahe (Porphyria mantelli), a large, flightless rail endemic to New Zealand. Presumed extinct until their "rediscovery" in 1948, just one relict population of -120 individuals remains in the Murchison Mountains, Fiordland. In addition, four small populations have been established on predator-free islands since 1984 (Crouchley, 1994). This project consists of two separate but inter-related chapters. Chapter One addresses the mating system and levels of genetic variation of takahe breeding on islands. Chapter Two assesses the effects of inbreeding on the reproductive success of island takahe. Conclusions and management recommendations are considered in the final part of this report. Some repetition is a consequence of this approach