Hvordan har rivaliseringen mellom West Coast og East Coast påvirket utviklingen til hip hop, og hva definerer de to retningene?

Hip Hop er en musikksjanger som oppstod i New York, i bydelen Bronx på 70-tallet. Sjangeren utviklet seg i forskjellige byer og regioner i USA, men med to hovedretninger, nemlig «West Coast» og «East Coast». Disse to regionene og sjangrene var rivaliserende, noe som ble gjenspeilet i musikken. Den rivaliserende hip hop-scenen var på sitt mest innflytelsesrike og innovative stadige på 90-tallet. Disse årene ble avgjørende for utviklingen til hip hop sjangeren.Hip Hop is a music genre that originated in New York, in the Bronx in the 70s. The genre developed in different cities and regions of the United States, but with two main directions, "West Coast" and "East Coast". These two regions and genres were rivals, which was reflected in the music. The rivalery in the hip hop scene was at its most influential and innovative in the 90s. These years were decisive for the development of the hip hop genre

Characterization of untranslated regions of the salmonid alphavirus 3 (SAV3) genome and construction of a SAV3 based replicon

Salmonid alphavirus (SAV) causes disease in farmed salmonid fish and is divided into different genetic subtypes (SAV1-6). Here we report the cloning and characterization of the 5'- and 3'- untranslated regions (UTR) of a SAV3 isolated from Atlantic salmon in Norway. The sequences of the UTRs are very similar to those of SAV1 and SAV2, but single nucleotide polymorphisms are present, also in the 3' - conserved sequence element (3'-CSE). Prediction of the RNA secondary structure suggested putative stem-loop structures in both the 5'- and 3'-ends, similar to those of alphaviruses from the terrestrial environment, indicating that the general genome replication initiation strategy for alphaviruses is also utilized by SAV. A DNA replicon vector, pmSAV3, based upon a pVAX1 backbone and the SAV3 genome was constructed, and the SAV3 non-structural proteins were used to express a reporter gene controlled by the SAV3 subgenomic promoter. Transfection of pmSAV3 into CHSE and BF2 cell lines resulted in expression of the reporter protein, confirming that the cloned SAV3 replication apparatus and UTRs are functional in fish cells

Wild and farmed salmon (Salmo salar) as reservoirs for infectious salmon anaemia virus, and the importance of horizontal- and vertical transmission

The infectious salmon anaemia virus (ISAV) is an important pathogen on farmed salmon in Europe. The virus occurs as low- and high virulent variants where the former seem to be a continuous source of new high virulent ISAV. The latter are controlled in Norway by stamping out infected populations while the former are spreading uncontrolled among farmed salmon. Evidence of vertical transmission has been presented, but there is still an ongoing discussion of the importance of circulation of ISAV via salmon brood fish. The only known wild reservoirs are in trout (Salmo trutta) and salmon (Salmo salar). This study provides the first ISAV sequences from wild salmonids in Norway and evaluates the importance of this reservoir with respect to outbreaks of ISA among farmed salmon. Phylogenetic analyses of the surface protein hemagglutinin-esterase gene from nearly all available ISAV from Norway, Faeroe Islands, Scotland, Chile and wild salmonids in Norway show that they group into four major clades. Including virulent variants in the analysis show that they belong in the same four clades supporting the hypothesis that there is a high frequency of transition from low to high virulent variants in farmed populations of salmon. There is little support for a hypothesis suggesting that the wild salmonids feed the virus into farmed populations. This study give support to earlier studies that have documented local horizontal transmission of high virulent ISAV, but the importance of transition from low- to high virulent variants has been underestimated. Evidence of vertical transmission and long distance spreading of ISAV via movement of embryos and smolt is presented. We recommend that the industry focus on removing the low virulent ISAV from the brood fish and that ISAV-free brood fish salmon are kept in closed containment systems (CCS).publishedVersio

Efficacy and safety of an inactivated vaccine against Salmonid alphavirus (family Togaviridae)

AbstractPancreas disease (PD) in salmonid fish is caused by an infection with Salmonid alphavirus (SAV) and remains as one of the major health problems in the European fish farming industry. Sequence studies have revealed a genetic diversity among viral strains. A subtype of SAV (SAV3) is causing an epizootic in farmed salmonids in Norway. Here we evaluate efficacy and safety of an inactivated virus vaccine based on ALV405, a strain of SAV3 that was isolated from Norwegian salmon. The vaccine provided an average relative percent survival (RPS) of 98.5 in an intraperitoneal challenge model, and induced nearly total protection against PD in a cohabitant challenge model. It provided significant protection against SAV-induced mortality also in a field trial under industrial conditions. Local reactions seen as melanization and adhesions in the visceral cavity were less severe than those induced by two commercial vaccines. Finally, we demonstrated that the protection is not impaired when the ALV405 antigen is combined with other viral or bacterial antigens in a polyvalent vaccine. The results confirm that efficient and safe protection against SAV infection and development of PD is possible using an inactivated virus vaccine, both alone and as a component in a polyvalent vaccine

Genomic epidemiology of salmonid alphavirus in Norwegian aquaculture reveals recent subtype-2 transmission dynamics and novel subtype-3 lineages

Viral disease poses a major barrier to sustainable aquaculture, with outbreaks causing large economic losses and growing concerns for fish welfare. Genomic epidemiology can support disease control by providing rapid inferences on viral evolution and disease transmission. In this study, genomic epidemiology was used to investigate salmonid alphavirus (SAV), the causative agent of pancreas disease (PD) in Atlantic salmon. Our aim was to reconstruct SAV subtype-2 (SAV2) diversity and transmission dynamics in recent Norwegian aquaculture, including the origin of SAV2 in regions where this subtype is not tolerated under current legislation. Using nanopore sequencing, we captured ~90% of the SAV2 genome for n = 68 field isolates from 10 aquaculture production regions sampled between 2018 and 2020. Using time-calibrated phylogenetics, we infer that, following its introduction to Norway around 2010, SAV2 split into two clades (SAV2a and 2b) around 2013. While co-present at the same sites near the boundary of Møre og Romsdal and Trøndelag, SAV2a and 2b were generally detected in non-overlapping locations at more Southern and Northern latitudes, respectively. We provide evidence for recent SAV2 transmission over large distances, revealing a strong connection between Møre og Romsdal and SAV2 detected in 2019/20 in Rogaland. We also demonstrate separate introductions of SAV2a and 2b outside the SAV2 zone in Sognefjorden (Vestland), connected to samples from Møre og Romsdal and Trøndelag, respectively, and a likely 100 km Northward transmission of SAV2b within Trøndelag. Finally, we recovered genomes of SAV2a and SAV3 co-infecting single fish in Rogaland, involving novel SAV3 lineages that diverged from previously characterized strains >25 years ago. Overall, this study demonstrates useful applications of genomic epidemiology for tracking viral disease spread in aquaculture

Protective Immunization of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar L.) against Salmon Lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) Infestation

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Lakselusinfestasjon på vill laksefisk langs norskekysten i 2018 - Sluttrapport til Mattilsynet

Overvåkingsprogrammet for lakselus på vill laksefisk (NALO) er i 2018 gjennomført på oppdrag fra Mattilsynet. Det var like stor vekt på utvandrende laksesmolt som i 2017, men økt innsats på sjøørret, med fiske i alle de 13 produksjonsområdene i to runder på to uker. Feltarbeidet i NALO startet 30. april i Sør-Norge og ble avsluttet 12. august i Finnmark. I ca. fire uker ble det utført pelagisk tråling etter utvandrende laksesmolt i henholdsvis; Rogaland, Hardanger, Sognefjorden, Romsdalsfjorden, Trondheimsfjorden og Altafjorden. Grunnet sen smoltutvandring ble tråling i Alta forskjøvet med vel en uke. Ruse/garnfangst av sjøørret ble gjennomført i to perioder på en rekke stasjoner langs hele kysten. Første periode ble gjennomført kort tid etter forventet utvandringstidspunkt for laksesmolt i området, og hadde som mål å kartlegge smittepresset av lakselus i dette tidsrommet. Videre ble periode to gjennomført omtrent en uke etter at første periode ble avsluttet. Det ble i tillegg benyttet vaktbur i en eller flere perioder i flere av de samme fjordsystemene som ble undersøkt med tråling, og i tillegg i ytre Namsenfjord/Vikna. Det er gjort en foreløpig vurdering av effekten på villfisk ved å bruke grensen mer enn 0,1 lus per gram kroppsvekt hos fisken som indikasjon på begynnende negativ fysiologisk effekt. En har benyttet begrepene lite, moderat og mye for å vurdere mengden lakselus registrert på villfisk i de ulike områdene. Resultatene og vurderingene er vist for hvert av de 13 produksjonsområdene.publishedVersio

Development of infectious cDNA clones of Salmonid alphavirus subtype 3

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p>Salmonid alphavirus (SAV) is a widespread pathogen in European aquaculture of salmonid fish. Distinct viral subtypes have been suggested based on sequence comparisons and some of these have different geographical distributions. In Norway, only SAV subtype 3 have so far been identified. Little is known about viral mechanisms important for pathogenesis and transmission. Tools for detailed exploration of SAV genomes are therefore needed.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Infectious cDNA clones in which a genome of subtype 3 SAV is under the control of a CMV promoter were constructed. The clones were designed to express proteins that are putatively identical to those previously reported for the SAVH20/03 strain. A polyclonal antiserum was raised against a part of the E2 glycoprotein in order to detect expression of the subgenomic open reading frame (ORF) encoding structural viral proteins. Transfection of the cDNA clone revealed the expression of the E2 protein by IFAT, and in serial passages of the supernatant the presence of infectious recombinant virus was confirmed through RT-PCR, IFAT and the development of a cytopathic effect similar to that seen during infection with wild type SAV. Confirmation that the recovered virus originated from the infectious plasmid was done by sequence identification of an introduced genetic tag. The recombinant virus was infectious also when an additional ORF encoding an EGFP reporter gene under the control of a second subgenomic alphavirus promoter was added. Finally, we used the system to study the effect of selected point mutations on infectivity in Chinook salmon embryo cells. While introduced mutations in nsP2₁₉₇, nsP3₂₆₃and nsP3₃₂₃severely reduced infectivity, a serine to proline mutation in E2₂₀₆appeared to enhance the virus titer production.</p> <p>Conclusion</p> <p>We have constructed infectious clones for SAV based on a subtype 3 genome. The clones may serve as a platform for further functional studies.</p