35 research outputs found

    Classes De Estímulos:: ImplicaçÔes Para Uma Anålise Comportamental Da Cognição

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    According to Borges, to think is to forget differences. Thisrequires the ability to form stimulus classes, relating unique objects, eventsor qualities. Stimulus classes may be formed on the basis of physicalsimilarity or common attributes, or they may be formed on the basis ofarbitrary relations between stimuli. Some types of arbitrary relations maygive rise to equivalence relations between stimuli. Equivalence relationsgenerate emergent behaviors, so that the individual learns more than has been explicitly taught. Functions directly acquired by a stimulus maytransi er to equivalent stimuli. Stimulus equivalence and transfer of functionsvary according to the context and underlie meaning comprehension. Researchon stimulus equivalence has contributed to the development ofprocedures to produce emergent performances in educational settings(such as learning to read) with mentally retarded individuais or children withlearning difficulties.Pensar Ă©, como diz Borges, esquecer diferenças. Para isto Ă© necessĂĄrio formar classes relacionando estĂ­mulos singulares: objetos, eventos ou qualidades. Classes de estĂ­mulos podem ser baseadas em similaridade fĂ­sica ou presença de atributos comuns, ou podem ser estabelecidas atravĂ©s de relaçÔes arbitrĂĄrias entre estĂ­mulos. Alguns tipos de relaçÔes arbitrĂĄrias podem dar origem a relaçÔes de equivalĂȘncia entre estĂ­mulos. Estas relaçÔes de equivalĂȘncia implicam na ocorrĂȘncia de desempenhos emergentes, de tal modo que o indivĂ­duo aprende mais do que foi explicitamente ensinado. FunçÔes adquiridas diretamente por um estĂ­mulo podem transferir-se para estĂ­mulos equivalentes. A equivalĂȘncia de estĂ­mulos e transferĂȘncia de funçÔes variam de acordo com o contexto, e estĂŁo subjacentes Ă  compreensĂŁo do significado. A pesquisa sobre equivalĂȘncia de estĂ­mulos tem contribuĂ­do para o desenvolvimento de procedimentos que produzem desempenhos emergentes em situaçÔes educacionais (como, por exemplo situaçÔes de alfabetização) com indivĂ­duos deficientes mentais ou com dificuldades de aprendizagem

    ANÁLISE COMPORTAMENTAL DA APRENDIZAGEM DE LEITURA E ESCRITA

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    This article presents the conceptual approach of behavior analysis applied to reading and spelling. It covers the heorethical view of reading and spelling in terms of stimulus control over verbal behavior and equivalence relations. he work also makes a review (not intending to be exhaustive) of research on reading and spelling based on this approach.Key-words: behavioral analysis, verbal behavior, reading, spellingEste artigo apresenta uma revisĂŁo da aprendizagem de leitura e escrita de acordo com a abordagem da AnĂĄlise o Comportamento. O artigo trata da anĂĄlise conceitual da leitura e escrita em termos de controle de estĂ­mulos sobre  comportamento verbal e de redes de relaçÔes de equivalĂȘncia. O trabalho faz tambĂ©m uma revisĂŁo, sem pretender xaurir o assunto, de pesquisas sobre leitura e escrita com base nesta abordagem.Palavras-chave: anĂĄlise do comportamento, comportamento verbal, leitura, escrit

    EQUIVALÊNCIA DE ESTÍMULOS EM PARTICIPANTES COM SÍNDROME DE DOWN: EFEITOS DA UTILIZAÇÃO DE PALAVRAS COM DIFERENÇAS MÚLTIPLAS OU CRÍTICAS E ANÁLISE DE CONTROLE RESTRITO DE ESTÍMULOS

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    The present study attempted to investigate stimulus equivalence formation by participants with Down’s syndrome. Participants learned auditory-visual conditional discriminations with pseudo-words and was manipulated the stimulus similarity in two experimental conditions. The stimuli had multiple differences between them in the first condition, and had critical differences between them in the second condition. Four individuals with Down’ssyndrome participated. Relations between dictated words and pictures and between dictated and printed words were trained through matching to sample procedures. Two participants also learned responses of constructing the words by the ordinal selection of their elements. Performances tested were naming of printed words and pictures, and matching printed words to pictures and pictures to printed words. Results suggested that three of the four participants formed equivalence classes in both experimental conditions, whereas the other participant showed signs of class formation only in the first experimental condition. Two participants had more difficulties with training and testing in the second condition. The difficulties were attributed to restricted stimulus control.Key words: stimulus equivalence, reading, stimulus similarity, stimulus control, Down’s syndromeO presente trabalho teve o propĂłsito de investigar a formação de equivalĂȘncia de estĂ­mulos com indivĂ­duos portadores de SĂ­ndrome de Down. Foram ensinadas discriminaçÔes condicionais auditivo-visuais para tais participantes, utilizando pseudo-palavras e manipulando distintamente o nĂșmero de elementos idĂȘnticos (letras) presentes nas palavras em duas condiçÔes experimentais. Os estĂ­mulos utilizados foram palavras dissĂ­labas do tipo consoante mais vogal. Na primeira das condiçÔes experimentais, as palavras apresentavam diferenças mĂșltiplas (uma ou duas letras em comum) e na segunda, diferenças crĂ­ticas entre si (palavras com trĂȘs ou quatro letras em comum). Os participantes foram quatro indivĂ­duos com SĂ­ndrome de Down. Foram treinadas, por meio de procedimentos de emparelhamento com o modelo, as relaçÔes entre palavras ditadas e figuras, e entre palavras ditadas e impressas. Com dois participantes, treinou-se tambĂ©m as respostas de construção por meio da seleção ordenada de cada elemento do estĂ­mulo impresso. Foram testadas as nomeaçÔes de palavras impressas e figuras e os emparelhamentos entre palavra impressa-figura e figura-palavra impressa. Os resultados sugerem que trĂȘs dos quatro participantes apresentaram a formação de classes de equivalĂȘncia nas duas condiçÔes experimentais. O outro participante mostrou indĂ­cios de formação de classes apenas na primeira condição experimental. Dois participantes apresentaram maiores dificuldades nos treinos e testes da segunda condição. As dificuldades encontradas por eles podem ser atribuĂ­das a controle restrito de estĂ­mulos. Palavras-chave: equivalĂȘncia de estĂ­mulos, leitura, similaridade entre os estĂ­mulos, controle de estĂ­mulos, SĂ­ndrome de Dow

    Aprendizagem de leitura por meio de um procedimento de discriminação sem erros (exclusão):: Uma replicação com pré-escolares

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    The present study investigated, with three preschoolers,the acquisition of reading (oral naming of textual stimuli) through ateaching program in which an exclusion procedure was embebed in orderto increase a repertoire of matching written words to spoken words. Theteaching program, which combines exclusion tasks, and equivalence andgeneralization tests, had been previously designed and evaluated. In theexclusion trials, two written words were simultaneously presented to thesubject; one was a new word and the other was a word that the subjecthad already learned to match to the corresponding spoken word. Thesubject was asked to point to the printed word corresponding to the wordspoken by the experimenter (oral sample). When the experimenterdictated the new word, the known word could function as a cue based onwhich the subject would reject the known word and select the new one.The teaching program involved the expansion of this matching repertoire,and evaluated 1) if the subject would leam to name the words previouslymatched. when presented with the printed stimulus alone, and 2) if hewould become able to present generalized reading when exposed to newwords composed by the rearrangement of syllables from the learnedwords. The results replicated previous studies with students with a history ofacademic failure: the subjects learned to read the training words andbegan to present generalized reading along the program. The occurrenceof generalized reading indicates that the subjects dominated themechanisms of analysis and synthesis involved in reading, that is, theirtextual behavior carne under the contrai of textual minimal units. Also, thespeed of generalization seems to be related to the amount of trainingrequired for the emergence of the reading of paired words. These resultsextend the generality of data on the effects of the exclusion procedure,establishing stimulus contrai by textual minimal units also with preschoolerswho did not have any experience with formal teaching of reading.O estudo investigou, com trĂȘs prĂ©-escolares, a aquisição de leitura por meio de um programa individualizado de ensino que emprega o procedimento de exclusĂŁo para ampliar o repertĂłrio de discriminaçÔes condicionais entre palavras ditadas (modelos) e palavras impressas (estĂ­mulos de escolha ou comparaçÔes). O programa, desenvolvido em um estudo prĂ©vio, combina passos de exclusĂŁo com testes de equivalĂȘncia e de generalização. Nas tentativas de pareamento por exclusĂŁo, duas palavras impressas eram apresentadas simultaneamente ao sujeito: uma era uma palavra nova e a outra era uma palavra que o sujeito jĂĄ havia aprendido a relacionar à palavra ditada correspondente. A tarefa do sujeito consistia em apontar a palavra impressa que correspondesse à palavra falada pelo experimentador (modelo oral); neste caso, quando a palavra nova era ditada, o sujeito podia excluir a palavra jĂĄ conhecida, usando-a como pista para selecionar a palavra impressa nova. Pretendia-se verificar se, tambĂ©m com esta população, a expansĂŁo deste repertĂłrio de pareamentos favoreceria a aprendizagem de leitura (das palavras de treino) e sua generalização (diante de outras palavras, formadas por recombinaçÔes de sĂ­labas contidas nas palavras jĂĄ aprendidas). Os resultados replicaram os de estudos anteriores (com alunos que jĂĄ tinham uma histĂłria acadĂ©mica mal-sucedida): os sujeitos aprenderam a ler as palavras de treino e passaram a apresentar leitura generalizada no decorrer do programa. A ocorrĂȘncia de leitura generalizada indica que os sujeitos dominaram os mecanismos de anĂĄlise e sĂ­ntese envolvidos na leitura, isto Ă©, seu comportamento textual passou a ser controlado por unidades textuais mĂ­nimas. Os dados indicam tambĂ©m que parece haver uma relação entre a dificuldade de aprender a ler as palavras de treino e a rapidez da generalização. Estes resultados estendem a generalidade dos efeitos do procedimento de exclusĂŁo no estabelecimento de controle de estĂ­mulos por unidades textuais mĂ­nimas para uma população ainda nĂŁo exposta ao ensino formal de leitura

    TransferĂȘncia de funçÔes discriminativas em classes de estĂ­mulos equivalentes

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    The relationship between stimulus equivalence andfunctional equivalence (documented by transfer ofdiscriminative functions) was investigated in four normal children through a simplesimultaneous discrimination with visual stimuli A1 (S+) and A2 (S-),followed by matching to sample tasks, in which A1, A2 and a novelstimulus A3, were related to comparisons B1 /B2/B3, respectively, and thelatter were used as nodal stimuli, related to comparisons C1/C2/C3, and tosamples D1/D2/D3, respectively. Probes were then conducted to verifystimulus equivalence, and transfer of discriminative functions to B1/B2,C1/C2, and D1/D2. Two subjects exhibited stimulus equivalence andtransfer of functions, and a third subject exhibited transfer of functions butnot stimulus equivalence. A fourth subject showed neither transfer offunctions nor stimulus equivalence. The results are consistent with theinterpretation that stimulus equivalence and functional equivalence aredifferent behavioral processes, and stimulus equivalence implies transferof functions but not the reverse.A relação entre equivalĂȘncia de estĂ­mulos e equivalĂȘncia funcional (indicada pela transferĂȘncia de funçÔes discriminativas) foi estudada com quatro crianças normais, atravĂ©s de uma discriminação simultĂąnea simples com estĂ­mulos visuais A1 (S+) e A2 (S-), seguida de tarefas de escolha segundo modelo em que A1, A2 e um novo estĂ­mulo A3, foram relacionados Ă s comparaçÔes B1/B2/B3, respectivamente, e estes Ășltimos foram usados como estĂ­mulos nodais, relacionados Ă s comparaçÔes C1/C2/C3, e aos modelos D1/D2/D3, respectivamente. Sondas testaram equivalĂȘncia de estĂ­mulos e transferĂȘncia de funçÔes discriminativas para os pares B1/B2, C1/C2 e D1/D2. Dois sujeitos mostraram equivalĂȘncia de estĂ­mulos e transferĂȘncia de funçÔes, o terceiro exibiu transferĂȘncia de funçÔes mas nĂŁo equivalĂȘncia de estĂ­mulos e o quarto nĂŁo mostrou nenhum destes efeitos. Os resultados sĂŁo consistentes com a interpretação de que equivalĂȘncia de estĂ­mulos e equivalĂȘncia funcional sĂŁo processos comportamentais distintos, e o primeiro implica o segundo mas nĂŁo o reverso

    Generalized contextual control based on nonarbitrary and arbitrary transfer of stimulus functions

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    Two experiments with human adults investigated the extent to which the transfer of function in accordance with nonarbitrary versus arbitrary stimulus relations may be brought under contextual control. Experiment 1 comprised four phases. Phase 1 consisted of multiple-exemplar training to establish discriminative functions for solid, dashed, or dotted lines. Phase 2 trained and tested two equivalence classes, each containing a 3D picture, a solid, a dashed, and a dotted form. During Phase 3, a discriminative function was established for each 3D picture. Phase 4 presented the solid, dashed, and dotted stimuli in two different frames, black or gray. The black frame cued function transfer based on nonarbitrary stimulus relations (Frame Physical); the gray frame cued function transfer based on equivalence relations (Frame Arbitrary). Testing and training with the frames was continued until contextual control was established; subsequently contextual control was demonstrated with novel equivalence classes with stimuli composed of the same forms. Experiment 2 replicated and extended Experiment 1 by demonstrating that such contextual control generalized to novel equivalence classes comprising novel forms and responses. The potential implications of the findings for developing increasingly precise experimental analyses of clinically relevant phenomena are considered (e.g., defusion)

    Effects of six experimental manipulations on the learning of a new escape response

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    Denomina-se desamparo aprendido o efeito deletĂ©rio da  exposição prĂ©via a situaçÔes aversivas incontrolĂĄveis sobre a aquisição de novas respostas. Este estudo investigou o efeito de seis manipulaçÔes experimentais sobre a aquisição de uma resposta de fuga. Quarenta e oito ratos foram distribuĂ­dos em seis grupos de oito. Cada sujeito foi submetido a trĂȘs sessĂ”es experimentais. Na primeira sessĂŁo, conforme o grupo a que pertencia, ou o animal recebia choques elĂ©tricos que podia interromper, ou recebia choques que sĂł podiam ser interrompidos por outro sujeito, ou nĂŁo recebia tratamento aversivo. Na segunda sessĂŁo, metade dos animais recebia choques incontrolĂĄveis e a outra metade nĂŁo recebia estimulação elĂ©trica. Na terceira sessĂŁo, todos os sujeitos tinham a possibilidade de desligar os choques. Os sujeitos que puderam interromper a apresentação dos estĂ­mulos na primeira sessĂŁo, mesmo aqueles que receberam choques incontrolĂĄveis na sessĂŁo seguinte, aprenderam a resposta de fuga na Ășltima sessĂŁo, o que nĂŁo se verificou entre os animais submetidos inicialmente Ă  incontrolabilidade. Estes resultados replicam o que se obtĂ©m normalmente em pesquisas que tratam do desamparo aprendido. PorĂ©m, o fraco desempenho dos sujeitos que nĂŁo receberam choques nas duas primeiras sessĂ”es coloca em questĂŁo a contingĂȘncia utilizada para testar a aprendizagem. Palavras-chave: desamparo aprendido; respostas de fuga; ratos.The deleterious effect of previous exposure to uncontrollable aversive events on subsequent learning is called learned helplessness. This study investigated the effect of six experimental manipulations on the acquisition of an escape response. Forty eight rats were divided in six groups of eight. Three experimental sessions were conducted with each rat. In the first session three different conditions were administered, depending on the group: in the first condition, animals received shocks that they could interrupt; in the second condition, animals were yoked to those in the first condition and could not interrupt shocks, which were interrupted by responses of the yoked animal; in the third condition, animals did not receive shocks. In the second session, half of the animals in each condition received uncontrollable shocks and the other half did not receive shocks. The third session tested whether animals could learn a response to escape shocks. Rats that could interrupt shocks in the first session, even if they received uncontrollable shocks in the second, learned to escape shocks in the test. Those that initially received uncontrollable shocks did not learn to escape in the test. These results replicate earlier findings on learned helplessness. However, the poor performance in the test by the group that did not received shocks leads to questions about the contingency used to evaluate learning.Keywords: learned helplessness; escape responses; rats

    The V471A polymorphism in autophagy-related gene ATG7 modifies age at onset specifically in Italian Huntington disease patients

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    The cause of Huntington disease (HD) is a polyglutamine repeat expansion of more than 36 units in the huntingtin protein, which is inversely correlated with the age at onset of the disease. However, additional genetic factors are believed to modify the course and the age at onset of HD. Recently, we identified the V471A polymorphism in the autophagy-related gene ATG7, a key component of the autophagy pathway that plays an important role in HD pathogenesis, to be associated with the age at onset in a large group of European Huntington disease patients. To confirm this association in a second independent patient cohort, we analysed the ATG7 V471A polymorphism in additional 1,464 European HD patients of the “REGISTRY” cohort from the European Huntington Disease Network (EHDN). In the entire REGISTRY cohort we could not confirm a modifying effect of the ATG7 V471A polymorphism. However, analysing a modifying effect of ATG7 in these REGISTRY patients and in patients of our previous HD cohort according to their ethnic origin, we identified a significant effect of the ATG7 V471A polymorphism on the HD age at onset only in the Italian population (327 patients). In these Italian patients, the polymorphism is associated with a 6-years earlier disease onset and thus seems to have an aggravating effect. We could specify the role of ATG7 as a genetic modifier for HD particularly in the Italian population. This result affirms the modifying influence of the autophagic pathway on the course of HD, but also suggests population-specific modifying mechanisms in HD pathogenesis

    Measuring the relatedness of equivalent stimuli / Medida do grau de relacionamento entre estĂ­mulos equivalentes

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    There are methodological difficulties to quantify the relatedness of equivalent stimuli. The purpose of this study was to create an instrument that could be helpful in this process. Two groups of college students took part in this study. The experimental group established equivalence classes comprised of abstract pictures and pictures of faces expressing anger, happiness and disgust. They then evaluated some of these pictures with a semantic differential. The control group used the same instrument in evaluating faces and figures, untrained in establishing relations between those stimuli. The control group assessed the figures as neutral and their assessment of the faces corresponded to that carried out by the participants of the experimental group – to them, the figures were equivalents to the faces. The comparison between the values attributed to the faces and figures provides a quantitative measurement of the degree of relatedness between those stimuli and that may be used to study parameters such as the number of nodes
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