O movimento agroecológico peruano durante o período 1980 a 2015 e a criação da Direção Geral de Desenvolvimento Agrícola e Agroecologia

This work consists of an overview of the main events in the history of the agroecology movement in Peru in the period from 1980 to 2015, through bibliographic and documentary research based mainly on articles, books and normative administrative acts. The objective is to highlight the main events in the history of this social movement, its political advocacy and the possible materialization of that collective effort in the inclusion of Agroecology in the Peruvian political scenario, with the recent creation of the General Directorate of Agricultural Development and Agroecology (DGDAA) as part of the restructuring of the Ministry of Agrarian Development and Irrigation of Peru (MIDAGRI) in March 2021. The consolidation of the National Council of Organic Products (CONAPO) as an advisory and consultative body of MIDAGRI, despite the time that passed between its constitution (2001 - 2003) and its "operationalization" (2012 forward), involved materializing joint and articulated work between the state and organized small-scale organic producers in planning public policies to encourage and promote organic or ecological production in Peru.El presente trabajo consiste en una descripción general de los principales acontecimientos de la historia del movimiento agroecológico en el Perú durante el periodo 1980 a 2015, a través de la investigación bibliográfica y documental basada principalmente en artículos, libros y actos administrativos normativos. El objetivo es destacar los principales eventos en la historia de este movimiento social, su incidencia política y la posible materialización de ese esfuerzo colectivo en la inclusión de la Agroecología en el escenario político peruano, con la reciente creación de la Dirección General de Desarrollo Agrícola y Agroecología (DGDAA) como parte de la reestructuración del Ministerio de Desarrollo Agrario y Riego del Perú (MIDAGRI) en marzo de 2021. La consolidación del Consejo Nacional de Productos Orgánicos (CONAPO) como ente asesor y consultivo del MIDAGRI, a pesar del tiempo que pasó entre su constitución (2001 - 2003) y su “operatividad” (2012 en adelante), significó la materialización del trabajo conjunto y articulado entre el estado y los pequeños productores ecológicos organizados, para el planeamiento de políticas públicas de fomento y promoción de la producción orgánica o ecológica en el Perú.O presente trabalho consiste numa descrição geral dos principais acontecimentos na história do movimento agroecológico no Peru no período 1980 a 2015, através da pesquisa bibliográfica e documental baseada principalmente em artigos, livros e atos administrativos normativos. O objetivo é destacar os principais eventos da história deste movimento social, sua incidência política e a possível materialização desse esforço coletivo na inclusão da Agroecologia no cenário político peruano, com a recente criação da Direção Geral de Desenvolvimento Agrícola e Agroecologia (DGDAA) como parte da reestruturação do Ministério de Desenvolvimento Agrário e Irrigação do Peru (MIDAGRI) em março de 2021. A consolidação do Conselho Nacional de Produtos Orgânicos (CONAPO) como ente assessor e consultivo do MIDAGRI, apesar do tempo que se passou entre sua constituição (2001-2003) e a sua “operabilidade” (2012 em diante), significou a concretização do trabalho conjunto e articulado entre o Estado e os pequenos produtores ecológicos organizados para o planejamento o de políticas públicas de fomento e promoção da produção orgânica ou ecológica no Peru

INFILTRAÇÃO DE ÁGUA NO SOLO EM SEMEADURA DIRETA APÓS ESCARIFICAÇÃO E CULTIVO DE ESPÉCIES VEGETAIS

Water infiltration into the soil is influenced by management, especially by the type of mechanical preparation, among other factors, and its knowledge is important  for  conservation  planning.  Scarification can improve physical and water conditions and increase the water infiltration capacity of the soil. This study aimed to evaluate some physical properties and the water infiltration into the soil in the presence and absence of scarification in no-till, in a Humic Cambisol with silty clay texture. For this, the following treatments were tested: no-till and no-till submitted to a single scarification, both combined with the cultivation of black oats/maize, black oats/beans, wheat/maize, wheat/beans, forage turnip/maize and forage turnip/beans. Soil samples were collected and water infiltration tests were performed at the beginning and at the end of the research. Scarification positively affected the soil physical properties only in the 0-5 cm layer, with the effect persisted for one year for most properties, resulting in higher water infiltration compared to the treatment without scarification.La infiltración de agua en el suelo está influenciada por el manejo, especialmente por el tipo de preparación mecánica, entre otros factores, y su conocimiento es importante para la planificación de la conservación. La escarificación puede mejorar las condiciones físicas y del agua y aumentar la capacidad de infiltración de agua en el suelo. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar algunas propiedades físicas y la infiltración de agua en el suelo en presencia y ausencia de escarificación en la siembra directa, en un Cambisol Húmico con textura arcillo limosa. Para esto, se probaron los siguientes tratamientos: siembra directa y siembra directa sometidas a una escarificación, ambas combinadas con el cultivo de avena negra/maíz, avena negra/frijoles, trigo/maíz, trigo/frijoles, nabo forrajero/maíz y nabo forrajero/frijoles. Se recogieron muestras de suelo y se realizaron pruebas de infiltración de agua al principio y al final de la investigación. La escarificación del suelo afectó positivamente las propiedades físicas del suelo solo en la capa superficial de 0-5 cm, cuyo efecto persistió durante un año para la mayoría de los atributos, lo que resultó en una mayor infiltración de agua en el suelo en comparación con el tratamiento sin escarificación.A infiltração de água no solo é influenciada pelo manejo, em especial pelo tipo de preparo mecânico, dentre outros fatores, e seu conhecimento é importante para o planejamento conservacionista. A escarificação pode melhorar as condições físicas e hídricas e aumentar a capacidade de infiltração de água no solo. Com este estudo objetivou-se avaliar algumas propriedades físicas e a infiltração de água no solo na presença e ausência de uma escarificação em semeadura direta, em um Cambissolo Húmico de textura argilo siltosa. Para isso, testaram-se os seguintes tratamentos: semeadura direta e semeadura direta submetida a uma escarificação, ambos combinados com os cultivos de aveia preta/milho, aveia preta/feijão, trigo/milho, trigo/feijão, nabo forrageiro/milho e nabo forrageiro/feijão. Coleta de amostras de solo e testes de infiltração de água foram realizados no início e ao final do experimento. A escarificação afetou positivamente as propriedades físicas do solo apenas na camada superficial de 0-5 cm, cujo efeito persistiu pelo período de um ano para a maioria dos atributos, resultando em maior infiltração de água em relação ao tratamento sem escarificação

THE ROLE OF THE XAVANTE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

There is an urgent demand to evaluate and document the environmental conditions of the territories of indigenous people. This is basic in the efforts to achieve sustainable development goals adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015. The Xavante people are hunters/gatherers and depend on natural resources for their physical, spiritual, and cultural survival. Their lands are localized in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil, in a transitional area between the Cerrado vegetation and the Amazon rainforest. They have been developing environmental projects ~in order to manage their territory correctly for decades, as part of their survival strategy. In recent fieldwork, we stated that some major game species may still be abundant in the territory and we suggest that certain wildlife management measures in the past may be responsible for this. We easily registered most game species handled by the Xavantes, except for some edentates that were rarely detected. We confirm the giant anteater as the most vulnerable species to hunting effects. In this article, we point out the main threats for the territory and present new recommendations that may be fundamental for the conservation of biodiversity in the region and the survival of the Xavante people

Sample Size in Behavioral Research: A Systematic Review of JEAB and JABA from 2009 to 2018

The current research conducted a systematic review on sample size and the use of inferential statistics in basic and applied behavioral research by assessing all experimental studies from 2009 to 2018 in the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) and the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA) which was 1,155 articles. The use or non-use of inferential statistics in behavioral research remains controversial as visual inspection has deep historical roots. JEAB had a median number of eight subjects and JABA had a median number of four subjects, which was statistically different using Mood’s median test. In addition, articles in JEAB were more likely to use inferential statistics compared to JABA.  In general, inferential statistics were used in the presence of larger sample sizes, however, the use of animal subjects was associated with smaller sample sizes. Although patterns of the use of inferential statistics varied across journal, sample size, and species, this does not preclude the use of statistical methods by applied behavioral researchers, which should be used to support and confirm visual inspections of data. Keywords: sample size, inferential statistics, behavioral research, systematic review

Towards a conceptual understanding of dispossession – Belo Monte and the precarization of the riverine people

The construction of the hydroelectric power plant Belo Monte in the Brazilian Amazon displaced thousands of families and caused complex impacts for the affected population. This paper argues that previous studies about dispossession in development contexts have considered both material and immaterial consequences but have not brought these dimensions into a conceptual context. In order to contribute to a deeper analytical knowledge of the mechanisms and multi-level effects of dispossession processes, the paper introduces a perspective on dispossession that focuses on its embeddedness in the symbolic order, its epistemic and ontological dimensions and its psychosocial consequences. Using the example of the affected riverine people, this paper shows that the politics of non-recognition used by the construction consortium caused a process of precarization. This comprised the epistemological dimension, and in turn led to a process of deterritorialization, heavily affecting the riverine people on a psychosocial level

HOME GARDENS IN LATIN AMERICA: WILD FOODS IN THE MESOAMERICAN EKUARO OF P'URÉPECHAS, MEXICO AND THE ANDEAN CHAKRA OF KICHWAS, ECUADOR

Agroforestry systems comprise important spaces for biodiversity involving traditional ecological knowledge in their management. In Latin America, within Mesoamerican region as well as Andean exists a prominent kind of agroforestry system called home gardens, distinguished by the presence of domesticated plants and animals, coexisting with wild foods. In this paper, we addressed a comparative view on home gardens between p’urhépecha ekuaro and kichwa chakra to document qualitatively the relationship between diversity of wild food and food sovereignty in Mesoamerica and Andean regions, within a context of cultural change, and to contribute to the discussion of wild-domesticated continuum related to plants in different home gardens. The ethnographic research shows three main elements: 1) that the diversity of forms of lives domesticated and wild that coexist in the home gardens form part of a food sovereignty system; 2) cultural change does not just affect home gardens in negative ways; 3) wild foods are in a very complex process of domestication in which it is difficult to define the lines between wild and domesticated. Wild food studies have to consider a broad approach to how wild food relates to human cultures

A SYSTEMATIC REPLICATION OF SKINNER (1938) USING A HOT AIR BLAST AS THE PUNISHER

The present study was a systematic replication of the classic study by Skinner (1938) using a hot air blast (HAB) as the punisher. After lever press training, six rats underwent two extinction sessions. During the initial 10 min of extinction in the first session, half of the subjects received a HAB for every lever press (punishment). Subjects that received punishment made fewer lever presses during first extinction session, but the total number of responses in both groups was equivalent by the end of the second extinction session. The present data corroborate the findings of Skinner (1938) that the punishment may have partial and temporary effects in certain contexts. We discuss the ways in which the elicitation of competitive responses, the intensity and nature of the stimulus, and the duration of exposure to the aversive contingency are important factors that may explain the divergent results in the literature.Keywords: punishment, replication, competitive responses, suppression, rats, hot air blastThe present study was a systematic replication of the classic study by Skinner (1938) using a hot air blast (HAB) as the punisher. After lever press training, six rats underwent two extinction sessions. During the initial 10 min of extinction in the first session, half of the subjects received a HAB for every lever press (punishment). Subjects that received punishment made fewer lever presses during first extinction session, but the total number of responses in both groups was equivalent by the end of the second extinction session. The present data corroborate the findings of Skinner (1938) that the punishment may have partial and temporary effects in certain contexts. We discuss the ways in which the elicitation of competitive responses, the intensity and nature of the stimulus, and the duration of exposure to the aversive contingency are important factors that may explain the divergent results in the literature.Keywords: punishment, replication, competitive responses, suppression, rats, hot air blas

EFFECT OF RELATIVE REINFORCEMENT DURATION IN CONCURRENT SCHEDULES WITH DIFFERENT REINFORCEMENT DENSITIES: A REPLICATION OF DAVISON (1988)

Previous studies have challenged the prediction of the Generalized Matching Law about the effect of relative, but not absolute, value of reinforcement parameters on relative choice measures. Six pigeons were run in an experiment involving concurrent variable-interval schedules with unequal reinforcer durations associated with the response alternatives (10 s versus 3s), a systematic replication of Davison (1988). Programmed reinforcement frequency was kept equal for the competing responses while their absolute value was varied. Measures of both response ratios and time ratios showed preference for the larger duration alternative and that preference did not change systematically with changes in absolute reinforcer frequency. Present results support the relativity assumption of the Matching Law. It is suggested that Davison’s results were due to uncontrolled variations in obtained reinforcement frequency. Keywords: choice, preference, overall reinforcer frequency, reinforcer magnitude, pigeons.

EFFECTS OF EARLY PROTEIN MALNUTRITION AND REPEATED TESTING UPON LOCOMOTOR AND EXPLORATORY BEHAVIORS IN THE ELEVATED PLUS-MAZE

An elevated plus-maze was used to investigate the effects of repeated testing on the locomotor and exploratory behaviors of malnourished rats. Pup malnutrition was induced during the lactation period (0 to 21 days of age) by feeding the dams a protein-deficient diet (6% protein) and the animals were allowed to recover from weaning to 70 days of age by eating a commercial lab chow diet. Control animals were suckled by dams receiving normal protein diet (16% protein) during the lactation period and were fed a commercial lab chow diet after weaning. At 70 days, malnourished and control animals were placed on the central platform of the elevated plus-maze facing an enclosed arm and allowed to explore for 5 min. This procedure was repeated at 24-h intervals of 6 days. The repeated testing in the elevated plus-maze did not change the total number of arm entries and attempts to enter open arms, but decreased the percentage of open arm entries, time spent in open arms, and total time spent on the central platform. These data suggest an increase in anxiety with repeated testing in the elevated plus-maze. In addition, the malnourished animals showed a large number of these animals as compared to control. The elevated plus-maze proved to be useful animal model to evaluate exploratory behaviors in early protein malnourished animals. Keywords: Early protein malnutrition Elevated plus-maze Impulsiveness Exploration Anxiety Repeated testing

INADVERTENT ESTABLISHMENT OF CONTROL BY LOCATION IN MATCHING-TO-SAMPLE TASKS IN INDIVIDUALS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

Estudos com sujeitos não humanos mostraram que o estabelecimento de controle inadvertido pela localização pode prejudicar a aquisição de relações condicionais em procedimentos de matching-to-sample (MTS). O objetivo do Experimento 1 foi verificar se esse fenômeno ocorreria com indivíduos com Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA) em sessões de treino com MTS sem procedimentos adicionais que pudessem favorecer a aquisição, tais como procedimentos de esvanecimento, dicas e correção. Todos os três participantes mostraram controle pela localização mesmo depois de completar um mínimo de 50 sessões de treino com MTS arbitrário com dois estímulos de comparação. Um segundo estudo foi realizado para verificar se o controle pela localização ocorreria durante o procedimento MTS usando três estímulos comparação. Dezesseis participantes completaram duas sessões de treino. Os resultados deste estudo indicam que 13 desses participantes exibiram controle pela localização no início do treino. Em conjunto, os resultados de ambos os experimentos indicam que o controle pela localização pode prejudicar a aquisição de relações condicionais em indivíduos com TEA, utilizando procedimentos MTS, sem procedimentos adicionais de aprendizagem sem erro, como apresentação ou esvanecimento de dicas.Palavras-chave: controle por localização, matching-to-sample, discriminação condicional, Transtorno do Espectro Autista.Estudos com sujeitos não humanos mostraram que o estabelecimento de controle inadvertido pela localização pode prejudicar a aquisição de relações condicionais em procedimentos de matching-to-sample (MTS). O objetivo do Experimento 1 foi verificar se esse fenômeno ocorreria com indivíduos com Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA) em sessões de treino com MTS sem procedimentos adicionais que pudessem favorecer a aquisição, tais como procedimentos de esvanecimento, dicas e correção. Todos os três participantes mostraram controle pela localização mesmo depois de completar um mínimo de 50 sessões de treino com MTS arbitrário com dois estímulos de comparação. Um segundo estudo foi realizado para verificar se o controle pela localização ocorreria durante o procedimento MTS usando três estímulos comparação. Dezesseis participantes completaram duas sessões de treino. Os resultados deste estudo indicam que 13 desses participantes exibiram controle pela localização no início do treino. Em conjunto, os resultados de ambos os experimentos indicam que o controle pela localização pode prejudicar a aquisição de relações condicionais em indivíduos com TEA, utilizando procedimentos MTS, sem procedimentos adicionais de aprendizagem sem erro, como apresentação ou esvanecimento de dicas.Palavras-chave: controle por localização, matching-to-sample, discriminação condicional, Transtorno do Espectro Autista