Membership duration in a Spanish Union : a survival analysis

This article presents an analysis of the characteristics that are associated with union membership duration using data from the membership registers of the largest Spanish trade union: Comisiones Obreras (CCOO, Workers' Commissions). Making use of survival analysis techniques, the results indicate that the shortest membership durations and the highest risks of leaving are associated with workers with poor employment conditions, mainly youth and foreigners, as well as those in firms, economic sectors, and territories where the union has a rather weak presence. As workers in these situations represent the majority of both current joining and leaving rates, the article concludes that retention policies should focus on the early stages of union membership

On the zeroes and the critical points of a solution of a second order half-linear differential equation

This paper presents two methods to obtain upper bounds for the distance between a zero and an adjacent critical point of a solution of the second-order half-linear di¿erential equation p x ¿ y q x ¿ y 0, with p x and q x piecewise continuous and p x > 0, ¿ t |t| r¿2 t and r being real such that r > 1. It also compares between them in several examples. Lower bounds i.e., Lyapunov inequalities for such a distance are also provided and compared with other methods.This work has been supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation Project DPI2010-C02-01.Almenar, P.; Jódar Sánchez, LA. (2012). On the zeroes and the critical points of a solution of a second order half-linear differential equation. Abstract and Applied Analysis. 2012(ID 78792):1-18. doi:10.1155/2012/787920S1182012ID 78792Almenar, P., & Jódar, L. (2012). An upper bound for the distance between a zero and a critical point of a solution of a second order linear differential equation. Computers & Mathematics with Applications, 63(1), 310-317. doi:10.1016/j.camwa.2011.11.023Li, H. J., & Yeh, C. C. (1995). Sturmian comparison theorem for half-linear second-order differential equations. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Section A Mathematics, 125(6), 1193-1204. doi:10.1017/s0308210500030468Yang, X. (2003). On inequalities of Lyapunov type. Applied Mathematics and Computation, 134(2-3), 293-300. doi:10.1016/s0096-3003(01)00283-1Lee, C.-F., Yeh, C.-C., Hong, C.-H., & Agarwal, R. P. (2004). Lyapunov and Wirtinger inequalities. Applied Mathematics Letters, 17(7), 847-853. doi:10.1016/j.aml.2004.06.016Pinasco, J. P. (2004). Lower bounds for eigenvalues of the one-dimensionalp-Laplacian. Abstract and Applied Analysis, 2004(2), 147-153. doi:10.1155/s108533750431002xPinasco, J. P. (2006). Comparison of eigenvalues for the p-Laplacian with integral inequalities. Applied Mathematics and Computation, 182(2), 1399-1404. doi:10.1016/j.amc.2006.05.027Almenar, P., & Jódar, L. (2009). Improving explicit bounds for the solutions of second order linear differential equations. Computers & Mathematics with Applications, 57(10), 1708-1721. doi:10.1016/j.camwa.2009.03.076Moore, R. (1955). The behavior of solutions of a linear differential equation of second order. Pacific Journal of Mathematics, 5(1), 125-145. doi:10.2140/pjm.1955.5.12

Use of canopy coefficients obtained from satellite data to estimate evapotranspiration over high mountain Mediterranean watersheds

This work explores the dynamics of the water consumed by the vegetation in two Mediterranean watersheds of Sierra Nevada Mountains (Southern Spain). This region has experienced an increase in the demand of water in the last years due to the growth of irrigated areas, and a new water resources plan is required. The evapotranspiration (ET) of irrigated horticultural crops and natural communities were monitored for the hydrological years 2013/14 and 2014/15, using an approach based on the concept of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) and canopy coefficients derived from the computation of vegetation indices (VIs), which we will call the VI-ETo approach. A set of Landsat-8 and MODIS images has been used as remote input data. The results were used for the spatial analysis of water consumption in terms of the main land cover types in the area. The annual runoff obtained with a simple surface water balance, using the ET values estimated by the VI-ETo approach, was comparable to that obtained by the HBV (Hydrologiska Byrans Vattenbalansavdelning) model, a precipitation-runoff generation model that reproduces the observed river discharge at the outlet of the watershed.</p

Modeling Spanish anxiolytic consumption: Economic, demographic and behavioral influences

Anxiolytics (AX) are the psychotropic drugs prescribed for the treatment of anxiety and insomnia for 2–4 weeks, for longer periods of consumption (>1 month) may lead to the development of tolerance or addiction. In fact, its prescription was 16% of the total pharmaceutical expenditure in Spain in 2007. This paper deals with the development of a mathematical model describing the dynamic of the addiction to AX for the case study of the Spanish region of Castellón. The reasons believed to cause the development of addicts to AX are the economic situation, the marriage termination and the social contact. The simulations performed to forecast the addicts rate for the period 2010–2014 showed an increase from 6% in 2010 to 14% in 2014 with a fluctuation of about 2% between the possible economic scenarios. Finally, the analysis of sensitivity of the rate of addicts to the fluctuation of the social contact parameters was performed, letting us estimate its impact on the pharmaceutical expenditure.De La Poza, E.; Guadalajara Olmeda, MN.; Jódar Sánchez, LA.; Merello Giménez, P. (2013). Modeling Spanish anxiolytic consumption: Economic, demographic and behavioral influences. Mathematical and Computer Modelling. 57(7):1619-1624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mcm.2011.10.020S1619162457

Efficient orthogonal matrix polynomial based method for computing matrix exponential

The matrix exponential plays a fundamental role in the solution of differential systems which appear in different science fields. This paper presents an efficient method for computing matrix exponentials based on Hermite matrix polynomial expansions. Hermite series truncation together with scaling and squaring and the application of floating point arithmetic bounds to the intermediate results provide excellent accuracy results compared with the best acknowledged computational methods. A backward-error analysis of the approximation in exact arithmetic is given. This analysis is used to provide a theoretical estimate for the optimal scaling of matrices. Two algorithms based on this method have been implemented as MATLAB functions. They have been compared with MATLAB functions funm and expm obtaining greater accuracy in the majority of tests. A careful cost comparison analysis with expm is provided showing that the proposed algorithms have lower maximum cost for some matrix norm intervals. Numerical tests show that the application of floating point arithmetic bounds to the intermediate results may reduce considerably computational costs, reaching in numerical tests relative higher average costs than expm of only 4.43% for the final Hermite selected order, and obtaining better accuracy results in the 77.36% of the test matrices. The MATLAB implementation of the best Hermite matrix polynomial based algorithm has been made available online. © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.This work has been supported by the Programa de Apoyo a la Investigacion y el Desarrollo of the Universidad Politecnica de Valencia PAID-05-09-4338, 2009.Sastre, J.; Ibáñez González, JJ.; Defez Candel, E.; Ruiz Martínez, PA. (2011). Efficient orthogonal matrix polynomial based method for computing matrix exponential. Applied Mathematics and Computation. 217(14):6451-6463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amc.2011.01.004S645164632171

High order structure preserving explicit methods for solving linear-quadratic optimal control problems

[EN] We consider the numerical integration of linear-quadratic optimal control problems. This problem requires the solution of a boundary value problem: a non-autonomous matrix Riccati differential equation (RDE) with final conditions coupled with the state vector equation with initial conditions. The RDE has positive definite matrix solution and to numerically preserve this qualitative property we propose first to integrate this equation backward in time with a sufficiently accurate scheme. Then, this problem turns into an initial value problem, and we analyse splitting and Magnus integrators for the forward time integration which preserve the positive definite matrix solutions for the RDE. Duplicating the time as two new coordinates and using appropriate splitting methods, high order methods preserving the desired property can be obtained. The schemes make sequential computations and do not require the storrage of intermediate results, so the storage requirements are minimal. The proposed methods are also adapted for solving linear-quadratic N-player differential games. The performance of the splitting methods can be considerably improved if the system is a perturbation of an exactly solvable problem and the system is properly split. Some numerical examples illustrate the performance of the proposed methods.The author wishes to thank the University of California San Diego for its hospitality where part of this work was done. He also acknowledges the support of the Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion (Spain) under the coordinated project MTM2010-18246-C03. The author also acknowledges the suggestions by the referees to improve the presentation of this work.Blanes Zamora, S. (2015). High order structure preserving explicit methods for solving linear-quadratic optimal control problems. Numerical Algorithms. 69:271-290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11075-014-9894-0S27129069Abou-Kandil, H., Freiling, G., Ionescy, V., Jank, G.: Matrix Riccati equations in control and systems theory. Basel, Burkhäuser Verlag (2003)Al-Mohy, A.H., Higham, N.J.: Computing the Action of the Matrix Exponential, with an Application to Exponential Integrators. SIAM. J. Sci. Comp. 33, 488–511 (2011)Anderson, B.D.O., Moore, J.B.: Optimal control: linear quadratic methods. Dover, New York (1990)Ascher, U.M., Mattheij, R.M., Russell, R.D.: Numerical solutions of boundary value problems for ordinary differential equations. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1988)Bader, P., Blanes, S., Ponsoda, E.: Structure preserving integrators for solving linear quadratic optimal control problems with applications to describe the flight of a quadrotor. J. Comput. Appl. Math. 262, 223–233 (2014)Basar, T., Olsder, G.J.: Dynamic non cooperative game theory, 2nd Ed, SIAM, Philadelphhia (1999)Blanes, S., Casas, F.: On the necessity of negative coefficients for operator splitting schemes of order higher than two. Appl. Num. Math. 54, 23–37 (2005)Blanes, S., Casas, F., Farrés, A., Laskar, J., Makazaga, J., Murua, A.: New families of symplectic splitting methods for numerical integration in dynamical astronomy. Appl. Numer. Math. 68, 58–72 (2013)Blanes, S., Casas, F., Oteo, J.A., Ros, J.: The Magnus expansion and some of its applications. Phys. Rep. 470, 151–238 (2009)Blanes, S., Casas, F., Ros, J.: High order optimized geometric integrators for linear differential equations. BIT 42, 262–284 (2002)Blanes, S., Diele, F., Marangi, C., Ragni, S.: Splitting and composition methods for explicit time dependence in separable dynamical systems. J. Comput. Appl. Math. 235, 646–659 (2010)Blanes, S., Moan, P.C.: Practical symplectic partitioned Runge-Kutta and Runge-Kutta-Nystrm methods. J. Comput. Appl. Math. 142, 313–330 (2002)Blanes, S., Ponsoda, E.: Magnus integrators for solving linear-quadratic differential games. J. Comput. Appl. Math. 236, 3394–3408 (2012)Brif, C., Chakrabarti, R., Rabitz, H.: Control of quantum phenomena: past, present and future. New J. Phys. 12, 075008(68pp) (2010)Cruz, J.B., Chen, C.I.: Series Nash solution of two person non zero sum linear quadratic games. J. Optim. Theory Appl. 7, 240–257 (1971)Dieci, L., Eirola, T.: Positive definitness in the numerical solution of Riccati differential quations. Numer. Math. 67, 303–313 (1994)Engwerda, J.: LQ dynamic optimization and differential games. Wiley (2005)Hairer, E., Lubich, C., Wanner, G.: Geometric Numerical Integration. Structure-Preserving Algorithms for Ordinary Differential Equations (2nd edition). Springer Series in Computational Mathematics, 31. 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Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes

Background: Regulatory guidance specifies the need to establish cardiovascular safety of new diabetes therapies in patients with type 2 diabetes in order to rule out excess cardiovascular risk. The cardiovascular effects of semaglutide, a glucagon-like peptide 1 analogue with an extended half-life of approximately 1 week, in type 2 diabetes are unknown. Methods: We randomly assigned 3297 patients with type 2 diabetes who were on a standard-care regimen to receive once-weekly semaglutide (0.5 mg or 1.0 mg) or placebo for 104 weeks. The primary composite outcome was the first occurrence of cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke. We hypothesized that semaglutide would be noninferior to placebo for the primary outcome. The noninferiority margin was 1.8 for the upper boundary of the 95% confidence interval of the hazard ratio. Results: At baseline, 2735 of the patients (83.0%) had established cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, or both. The primary outcome occurred in 108 of 1648 patients (6.6%) in the semaglutide group and in 146 of 1649 patients (8.9%) in the placebo group (hazard ratio, 0.74; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.58 to 0.95; P<0.001 for noninferiority). Nonfatal myocardial infarction occurred in 2.9% of the patients receiving semaglutide and in 3.9% of those receiving placebo (hazard ratio, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.51 to 1.08; P=0.12); nonfatal stroke occurred in 1.6% and 2.7%, respectively (hazard ratio, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.38 to 0.99; P=0.04). Rates of death from cardiovascular causes were similar in the two groups. Rates of new or worsening nephropathy were lower in the semaglutide group, but rates of retinopathy complications (vitreous hemorrhage, blindness, or conditions requiring treatment with an intravitreal agent or photocoagulation) were significantly higher (hazard ratio, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.11 to 2.78; P=0.02). Fewer serious adverse events occurred in the semaglutide group, although more patients discontinued treatment because of adverse events, mainly gastrointestinal. Conclusions: In patients with type 2 diabetes who were at high cardiovascular risk, the rate of cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke was significantly lower among patients receiving semaglutide than among those receiving placebo, an outcome that confirmed the noninferiority of semaglutide. (Funded by Novo Nordisk; SUSTAIN-6 ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT01720446.)Sin financiación72.406 JCR (2016) Q1, 1/155 Medicine, General & InternalUE

One-step in vitro generation of ETV2-null pig embryos

Each year, tens of thousands of people worldwide die of end-stage organ failure due to the limited availability of organs for use in transplantation. To meet this clinical demand, one of the last frontiers of regenerative medicine is the generation of humanized organs in pigs from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) via blastocyst complementation. For this, organ-disabled pig models are needed. As endothelial cells (ECs) play a critical role in xenotransplantation rejection in every organ, we aimed to produce hematoendothelial-disabled pig embryos targeting the master transcription factor ETV2 via CRISPR-Cas9-mediated genome modification. In this study, we designed five different guide RNAs (gRNAs) against the DNA-binding domain of the porcine ETV2 gene, which were tested on porcine fibroblasts in vitro. Four out of five guides showed cleavage capacity and, subsequently, these four guides were microinjected individually as ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) into one-cell-stage porcine embryos. Next, we combined the two gRNAs that showed the highest targeting efficiency and microinjected them at higher concentrations. Under these conditions, we significantly improved the rate of biallelic mutation. Hence, here, we describe an efficient one-step method for the generation of hematoendothelial-disabled pig embryos via CRISPR-Cas9 microinjection in zygotes. This model could be used in experimentation related to the in vivo generation of humanized organs

Modelling the propagation of adult male muscle dysmorphia in Spain: economic, emotional and social drivers

This is an author's accepted manuscript of an article published in: “Applied Economics"; Volume 47, Issue 12, 2015; copyright Taylor & Francis; available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2013.870657Males aged over 40 do more gym practice to improve their body image as a way of reinforcing their personal self-esteem and sexual appeal. Cases when self-image becomes an obsession may result in a body dysmorphic disorder named ‘muscle dysmorphia’ (MD). The combination of psychological, environmental and biological drivers determines the appearance and development of this disorder. In this article, we developed a discrete population mathematical model to forecast the rate of prevalence of males who are noncompetitive bodybuilders at risk of suffering MD in Spain in forthcoming years. Economic, emotional, sociological and psychological motivations were taken into account to quantify the dynamic behaviour of Spanish noncompetitive bodybuilders. The impact of the unemployment is reflected in the construction of two coefficients, αu and α21, which explain subpopulation transits due to the economy. Sociological influences, such as human herding and social propagation, were also considered. Our results predict an increase in Spanish noncompetitive bodybuilders suffering MD from 1% in 2011 to around 11% in 2015. Our model can be applied to any other western country where data are available and to another study period when the hypotheses are applicable.De La Poza, E.; Jódar Sánchez, LA.; Alkasadi, M. (2015). Modelling the propagation of adult male muscle dysmorphia in Spain: economic, emotional and social drivers. Applied Economics. 47(12):1159-1169. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2013.870657S115911694712Blashfield, R. K., Sprock, J., & Fuller, A. K. (1990). Suggested guidelines for including or excluding categories in the DSM-IV. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31(1), 15-19. doi:10.1016/0010-440x(90)90049-xBoyda, D., & Shevlin, M. (2011). Childhood victimisation as a predictor of muscle dysmorphia in adult male bodybuilders. The Irish Journal of Psychology, 32(3-4), 105-115. doi:10.1080/03033910.2011.616289Brown, J., & Graham, D. (2008). Body Satisfaction in Gym-active Males: An Exploration of Sexuality, Gender, and Narcissism. Sex Roles, 59(1-2), 94-106. doi:10.1007/s11199-008-9416-4Brown, J. T. (2005). Anabolic Steroids: What Should the Emergency Physician Know? Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America, 23(3), 815-826. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2005.03.012Chaney, M. P. (2008). Muscle Dysmorphia, Self-esteem, and Loneliness among Gay and Bisexual Men. International Journal of Men’s Health, 7(2), 157-170. doi:10.3149/jmh.0702.157Choi, P. Y. L. (2002). Muscle dysmorphia: a new syndrome in weightlifters * Commentary. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 36(5), 375-376. doi:10.1136/bjsm.36.5.375Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The Spread of Obesity in a Large Social Network over 32 Years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(4), 370-379. doi:10.1056/nejmsa066082Cohane, G. H., & Pope, H. G. (2001). Body image in boys: A review of the literature. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29(4), 373-379. doi:10.1002/eat.1033Duato, R., & Jódar, L. (2013). Mathematical modeling of the spread of divorce in Spain. Mathematical and Computer Modelling, 57(7-8), 1732-1737. doi:10.1016/j.mcm.2011.11.020Eide, E. R., & Ronan, N. (2001). Is participation in high school athletics an investment or a consumption good? Economics of Education Review, 20(5), 431-442. doi:10.1016/s0272-7757(00)00033-9Farrell, L., & Shields, M. A. (2002). Investigating the economic and demographic determinants of sporting participation in England. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society), 165(2), 335-348. doi:10.1111/1467-985x.00626French, S. A., Story, M., Downes, B., Resnick, M. D., & Blum, R. W. (1995). Frequent dieting among adolescents: psychosocial and health behavior correlates. American Journal of Public Health, 85(5), 695-701. doi:10.2105/ajph.85.5.695García, I., Jódar, L., Merello, P., & Santonja, F.-J. (2011). A discrete mathematical model for addictive buying: Predicting the affected population evolution. Mathematical and Computer Modelling, 54(7-8), 1634-1637. doi:10.1016/j.mcm.2010.12.012González-Martí, I., Bustos, J. G. F., Jordán, O. R. C., & Mayville, S. B. (2012). Validation of a Spanish version of the Muscle Appearance Satisfaction Scale: Escala de Satisfacción Muscular. Body Image, 9(4), 517-523. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.05.002Greenberg, J. L., Markowitz, S., Petronko, M. R., Taylor, C. E., Wilhelm, S., & Wilson, G. T. (2010). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adolescent Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 17(3), 248-258. doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2010.02.002Hildebrandt, T., Schlundt, D., Langenbucher, J., & Chung, T. (2006). Presence of muscle dysmorphia symptomology among male weightlifters. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 47(2), 127-135. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.06.001Hitzeroth, V., Wessels, C., Zungu-Dirwayi, N., Oosthuizen, P., & Stein, D. J. (2001). Muscle dysmorphia: A South African sample. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 55(5), 521-523. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1819.2001.00899.xHONEKOPP, J., RUDOLPH, U., BEIER, L., LIEBERT, A., & MULLER, C. (2007). Physical attractiveness of face and body as indicators of physical fitness in men. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(2), 106-111. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.09.001Humphreys, B. R., & Ruseski, J. E. (2011). An Economic Analysis of Participation and Time Spent in Physical Activity. The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 11(1). doi:10.2202/1935-1682.2522Kanayama, G. (2006). Body Image and Attitudes Toward Male Roles in Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Users. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(4), 697. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.697Keery, H., van den Berg, P., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). An evaluation of the Tripartite Influence Model of body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance with adolescent girls. Body Image, 1(3), 237-251. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2004.03.001Mosley, P. E. (2009). Bigorexia: bodybuilding and muscle dysmorphia. European Eating Disorders Review, 17(3), 191-198. doi:10.1002/erv.897Murray, S. B., Rieger, E., Touyz, S. W., & De la Garza García Lic, Y. (2010). Muscle dysmorphia and the DSM-V conundrum: Where does it belong? A review paper. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43(6), 483-491. doi:10.1002/eat.20828Nieuwoudt, J. E., Zhou, S., Coutts, R. A., & Booker, R. (2012). Muscle dysmorphia: Current research and potential classification as a disorder. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(5), 569-577. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.03.006Olivardia, R. (2001). Mirror, Mirror on the Wall, Who’s the Largest of Them All? The Features and Phenomenology of Muscle Dysmorphia. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9(5), 254-259. doi:10.1080/hrp.9.5.254.259Olivardia, R., Pope, H. G., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Muscle Dysmorphia in Male Weightlifters: A Case-Control Study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1291-1296. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1291Phillips, K. A. (2009)Understanding Body Dysmorphic Disorder an Essential Guide, 49, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.Phillips, K. A., Wilhelm, S., Koran, L. M., Didie, E. R., Fallon, B. A., Feusner, J., & Stein, D. J. (2010). Body dysmorphic disorder: some key issues for DSM-V. Depression and Anxiety, 27(6), 573-591. doi:10.1002/da.20709Pompper, D. (2010). Masculinities, the Metrosexual, and Media Images: Across Dimensions of Age and Ethnicity. Sex Roles, 63(9-10), 682-696. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9870-7Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Choi, P., Olivardia, R., & Phillips, K. A. (1997). Muscle Dysmorphia: An Underrecognized Form of Body Dysmorphic Disorder. Psychosomatics, 38(6), 548-557. doi:10.1016/s0033-3182(97)71400-2Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Mangweth, B., Bureau, B., deCol, C., Jouvent, R., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Body Image Perception Among Men in Three Countries. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(8), 1297-1301. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1297Kanayama, G., Brower, K. J., Wood, R. I., Hudson, J. I., & Pope, H. G. (2009). Issues for DSM-V: Clarifying the Diagnostic Criteria for Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(6), 642-645. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08111699Pope, H. G., Katz, D. L., & Hudson, J. I. (1993). Anorexia nervosa and «reverse anorexia» among 108 male bodybuilders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 34(6), 406-409. doi:10.1016/0010-440x(93)90066-dPopkin, B. M. (2003). The Nutrition Transition in the Developing World. Development Policy Review, 21(5-6), 581-597. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8659.2003.00225.xRaafat, R. M., Chater, N., & Frith, C. (2009). Herding in humans. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(10), 420-428. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.08.002RICCIARDELLI, L. A., & McCABE, M. P. (2003). Sociocultural and individual influences on muscle gain and weight loss strategies among adolescent boys and girls. Psychology in the Schools, 40(2), 209-224. doi:10.1002/pits.10075Silver, M. D. (2001). Use of Ergogenic Aids by Athletes. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 9(1), 61-70. doi:10.5435/00124635-200101000-00007Smolak, L., Levine, M. P., & Schermer, F. (1999). Parental input and weight concerns among elementary school children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25(3), 263-271. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199904)25:33.0.co;2-vVarangis, E., Lanzieri, N., Hildebrandt, T., & Feldman, M. (2012). Gay male attraction toward muscular men: Does mating context matter? Body Image, 9(2), 270-278. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.01.003Catherine Walker, D., Anderson, D. A., & Hildebrandt, T. (2009). Body checking behaviors in men. Body Image, 6(3), 164-170. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.05.001Wolke, D., & Sapouna, M. (2008). Big men feeling small: Childhood bullying experience, muscle dysmorphia and other mental health problems in bodybuilders. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(5), 595-604. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.10.00