Normative data for ten neuropsychological tests for the Guatemalan pediatric population updated to account for vulnerability

The Guatemalan pediatric population is affected by a high incidence of poverty and violence. The previous literature showed that these experiences may ultimately impact cognitive performance. The aim of this article is to update the standardized scores for ten neuropsychological tests commonly used in Guatemala considering vulnerability. A total of 347 healthy children and adolescents from 6 to 17 years of age (M = 10.83, SD = 3) were assessed, controlling for intelligence, mental health and neuropsychological history. The standard scores were created using multiple linear regression and standard deviations from residual values. The predictors included were the following: Age, age squared (age2), mean parental education (MPE), mean parental education squared (MPE2), gender, and vulnerability, as well as their interaction. The vulnerability status was significant in the scores for language, attention and executive functions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that includes the condition of vulnerability in the calculation of neuropsychological standard scores. The utility of this update is to help in the early detection of special needs in this disadvantaged population, promoting more accurate interventions in order to alleviate the negative effects that living in vulnerable conditions has on children and adolescents.This research was funded by the Agencia Andaluza de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo, Junta de Andalucía Goverment (Spain), under the project 'Estatus socioeconómico y desarrollo cognitivo en la infancia y la adolescencia: herramientas de evaluación innovadoras para poblaciones vulnerables. El caso de Guatemala', grant number 0INN007/2017, and by the Universidad Loyola Andalucía funds

Stroop Color-Word Interference Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population

OBJECTIVE: To generate normative data for the Stroop Word-Color Interference test in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. METHOD: The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the Stroop Word-Color Interference test as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The Stroop Word, Stroop Color, Stroop Word-Color, and Stroop Interference scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. RESULTS: The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on all scores, except on Stroop Interference for Guatemala, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 affected Stroop Word scores for all countries, Stroop Color scores for Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Spain; Stroop Word-Color scores for Ecuador, Mexico, and Paraguay; and Stroop Interference scores for Cuba, Guatemala, and Spain. MLPE affected Stroop Word scores for Chile, Mexico, and Puerto Rico; Stroop Color scores for Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Spain; Stroop Word-Color scores for Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Puerto Rico and Spain; and Stroop-Interference scores for Ecuador, Mexico, and Spain. Sex affected Stroop Word scores for Spain, Stroop Color scores for Mexico, and Stroop Interference for Honduras. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the Stroop Word-Color Interference test in pediatric populations

Newly developed Learning and Verbal Memory Test (TAMV-I): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population

OBJECTIVE: To generate normative data for the Learning and Verbal Memory Test (TAMV-I) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. METHOD: The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the TAMV-I as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. Free recall, memory delay and recognition scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses. RESULTS: The final multiple linear regression models indicated main effects for age on all scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. Age2 had a significant effect in all countries except Cuba, and Puerto Rico for free recall score; a significant effect for memory delay score in all countries except Cuba and Puerto Rico; and a significant effect for recognition score in in all countries except Guatemala, Honduras, and Puerto Rico. Models showed an effect for MLPE in Chile (free recall), Honduras (free recall), Mexico (free recall), Puerto Rico (free recall, memory delay, and recognition), and Spain (free recall and memory delay). Sex affected free recall score for Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Spain, memory delay score for all countries except Chile, Paraguay, and Puerto Rico, and recognition score for Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, and Spain, with girls scoring higher than boys. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate way to interpret the TAMV-I with pediatric populations

How Living in Vulnerable Conditions Undermines Cognitive Development: Evidence from the Pediatric Population of Guatemala

Low-socioeconomic backgrounds represent a risk factor for children’s cognitive development and well-being. Evidence from many studies highlights that cognitive processes may be adversely affected by vulnerable contexts. The aim of this study was to determine if living in vulnerable conditions affects childhood cognitive development. To achieve this, we assessed the performance of a sample of 347 Guatemalan children and adolescents aged from 6 to 17 years (M = 10.8, SD = 3) in a series of 10 neuropsychological tasks recently standardized for the pediatric population of this country. Two-fifths of the sample (41.5%) could be considered to have vulnerable backgrounds, coming from families with low-socioeconomic status or having had a high exposure to violence. As expected, results showed lower scores in language and attention for the vulnerable group. However, contrary to expectations, consistent systematic differences were not found in the executive function tasks. Vulnerable children obtained lower scores in cognitive flexibility compared to the non-vulnerable group, but higher scores in inhibition and problem-solving tasks. These results suggest the importance of developing pediatric standards of cognitive performance that take environmental vulnerable conditions into consideration. These findings, one of the first obtained in the Guatemalan population, also provide relevant information for specific educational interventions and public health policies which will enhance vulnerable children and adolescent cognitive development

Socioeconomic Status, Culture, and Reading Comprehension in Immigrant Students

This research was supported by a grant from the Ministry of Science and Innovation, Government of Spain, under the project “Cognition and Education” (COEDUCA)(CONSOLIDER Ingenio 2010 CSD2008-00048), and grants PSI2017-84556-P and PSI2015-65656-P, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by “ERDF A way of making Europe”. This research has also been partially funded by grants PGC2018-097145-B-I00 and RED2018-102615-608 T from the Spanish Government and H2019/HUM-5705 from the Comunidad de Madrid, Spain.Research on reading comprehension in immigrant students is heterogeneous and conflicting. Differences in socioeconomic status and cultural origins are very likely confounds in determining whether differences to native pupils can be attributed to immigrant status. We collected data on 312 Spanish students of Native, of Hispanic origin–therefore with the same family language as native students- and Non-Hispanic origin, while controlling for socioeconomic status, non-verbal reasoning and school membership. We measured reading comprehension, knowledge of syntax, sentence comprehension monitoring, and vocabulary. Differences among groups appeared only in vocabulary and syntax (with poorer performance in the non-Hispanic group), with no differences in reading comprehension. However, regression analyses showed that most of the variability in reading comprehension was predicted by age, socioeconomic status, non-verbal reasoning, and comprehension monitoring. Group membership did not significantly contribute to explain reading comprehension variability. The present study supports the idea that socioeconomically disadvantaged students, both native and immigrants from diverse cultural backgrounds, irrespective of the language of origin, are probably equally at risk of poor reading comprehension.Ministry of Science and Innovation, Government of Spain (COEDUCA)(CONSOLIDER Ingenio 2010 CSD2008-00048)PSI2017-84556-P and PSI2015-65656-P, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by “ERDF A way of making Europe”PGC2018-097145-B-I00 and RED2018-102615-608 T from the Spanish GovernmentH2019/HUM-5705 from the Comunidad de Madrid, Spai

Mental Health, Quality of Life and Violence Exposure in Low-Socioeconomic Status Children and Adolescents of Guatemala

Growing up in vulnerable conditions has an impact on children and adolescents’ mental health and well-being outcomes. However, this evidence has rarely been obtained in middle and low-income countries like Guatemala, where food insecurity and exposure to violence frequently threaten childhood development. The aim of this study was to analyse the relations that sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors have with psychological adjustment of low-socioeconomic status (SES) Guatemalan children and adolescents, and how these relations were mediated by food insecurity and exposure to violence. A total of 185 participants (50.8% girls; aged between 6 to 17, M = 11.82, SD = 3.7) from three vulnerable schools located in rural and urban areas of Guatemala were assessed. The results indicated that exposure to violence significantly moderates the effect of sociodemographic and socioeconomic variables in measures of depression, anxiety and health-related quality of life. Adolescents more exposed to violence reported higher levels of depression and anxiety, as well as lower levels of health-related quality of life. In contrast, food insecurity did not seem to influence psychological adjustment outcomes in this low-SES sample. These findings highlight the relevance of exposure to violence for mental health and well-being, and is a factor that should be considered when designing public health policies to promote children and adolescents’ welfare

Funções executivas em alunos com deficiência específica de linguagem no início do ensino básico

The executive functions (EF) constitute a set of skills involved in the control and regulation of cognitive functioning. The relation between EF and the development of language is especially relevant regarding the conceptualization of linguistic disorders. This study aims to explore the differential use of EF among two groups: Typical Language Development (TLD) and Specific Language Impairment (SLI). Participants were 44 students (56,82% boys), 22 TLD and 22 SLI, with ages between 6,00–6,92 years (M=6.17, SD=.19). The previous diagnostic factor showed significant effects in executive attention (p<.001, η2 partial =.77), working memory (p<.001, η2 partial =.67), cognitive flexibility (p<.01, η2 partial =.15), and planning (p< .001, η2 partial =.63). In all cases, except in cognitive flexibility, the effect size was strong. The results would support the thesis of non-specificity in the SLI and the possible presence of general cognitive dysfunctions that underlie the disorder. How to cite: Ambiado-Lillo, M., Navarro, J.-J. & Ibáñez-Alfonso, J.A. (2020). Executive Functions in Students with Specific LanguageImpairment at the Beginning of Elementary Education. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29(2), 57-72. https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n2.79390Las funciones ejecutivas (FE) constituyen un conjunto de habilidades implicadas en el control y regulación del funcionamiento cognitivo. La relación entre FE y desarrollo del lenguaje es especialmente relevante en la conceptualización de los trastornos lingüísticos. El objetivo del estudio consistía en explorar el uso diferencial de FE en dos grupos: Desarrollo Lingüístico Típico (DLT) y Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje (TEL). Participaron 44 estudiantes (56,82% niños), 22 DLT y 22 TEL, con edades entre 6,00–6,92 años (M=6.17, DT=.19). El factor diagnóstico previo mostró efectos significativos en atención ejecutiva (p<.001, η2 parcial =.77), memoria de trabajo (p<.001, η2 parcial =.67), flexibilidad cognitiva (p<.01, η2 parcial =.15), y planificación (p<.001, η2 parcial =.63). En todos los casos, salvo en flexibilidad cognitiva, el tamaño del efecto fue fuerte. Los resultados avalarían la tesis de no especificidad en TEL y la posible presencia de disfunciones cognitivas generales que subyacen al trastorno. Cómo citar este artículo: Ambiado-Lillo, M., Navarro, J.-J. & Ibáñez-Alfonso, J.A. (2020). Funciones Ejecutivas en Estudiantes con Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje al Comienzo de la Escolarización Básica. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29(2), 57-72. https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n2.79390As funções executivas (FE) constituem um conjunto de habilidades envolvidas no controle e regulação do funcionamento cognitivo. A relação do FE com o desenvolvimento da linguagem é especialmente relevante em relação à conceituação de transtornos linguísticos. O objetivo deste estudo é explorar possíveis diferenças no uso de FE entre estudantes com desenvolvimento de linguagem típica (DLT) e estudantes com deficiência específica de linguagem (DEL). Participaram 44 estudantes (56,82% meninos), 22 com DLT e 22 com DEL, com idade entre 6,00 e 6,92 anos (média = 6,17, DP = 0,19). Em ambos os grupos, a memória de trabalho, a flexibilidade cognitiva, a atenção executiva e o planejamento foram avaliados. Uma análise comparativa entre os grupos foi realizada e o efeito do diagnóstico prévio sobre os resultados obtidos foi analisado. Os estudantes com DTL apresentaram desempenho significativamente melhor no uso de todas as FE avaliadas. O fator diagnóstico prévio teve efeito significativo sobre a atenção executiva (p <0,001, parcial η2 = 0,77), memória operativa (p <0,001, parcial η2 = 0,67), flexibilidade cognitiva (p <0,01). , parcial η2 = .15) e planejamento (p <.001, parcial η2 = .63). Em todos os casos, o tamanho do efeito foi forte, exceto na flexibilidade cognitiva, onde foi moderada. A especificidade do DEL e sua relação com os FE são discutidos. Os resultados suportariam a tese da não especificidade no DEL e a possível presença de disfunções cognitivas gerais subjacentes ao distúrbio

Funciones Ejecutivas en Estudiantes con Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje al Comienzo de la Escolarización Básica

The executive functions (EF) constitute a set of skills involved in the control and regulation of cognitive functioning. The relation between EF and the development of language is especially relevant regarding the conceptualization of linguistic disorders. This study aims to explore the differential use of EF among two groups: Typical Language Development (TLD) and Specific Language Impairment (SLI). Participants were 44 students (56,82% boys), 22 TLD and 22 SLI, with ages between 6,00–6,92 years (M=6.17, SD=.19). The previous diagnostic factor showed significant effects in executive attention (p<.001, η2 partial =.77), working memory (p<.001, η2 partial =.67), cognitive flexibility (p<.01, η2 partial =.15), and planning (p< .001, η2 partial =.63). In all cases, except in cognitive flexibility, the effect size was strong. The results would support the thesis of non-specificity in the SLI and the possible presence of general cognitive dysfunctions that underlie the disorder. How to cite: Ambiado-Lillo, M., Navarro, J.-J. & Ibáñez-Alfonso, J.A. (2020). Executive Functions in Students with Specific LanguageImpairment at the Beginning of Elementary Education. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29(2), 57-72. https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n2.79390As funções executivas (FE) constituem um conjunto de habilidades envolvidas no controle e regulação do funcionamento cognitivo. A relação do FE com o desenvolvimento da linguagem é especialmente relevante em relação à conceituação de transtornos linguísticos. O objetivo deste estudo é explorar possíveis diferenças no uso de FE entre estudantes com desenvolvimento de linguagem típica (DLT) e estudantes com deficiência específica de linguagem (DEL). Participaram 44 estudantes (56,82% meninos), 22 com DLT e 22 com DEL, com idade entre 6,00 e 6,92 anos (média = 6,17, DP = 0,19). Em ambos os grupos, a memória de trabalho, a flexibilidade cognitiva, a atenção executiva e o planejamento foram avaliados. Uma análise comparativa entre os grupos foi realizada e o efeito do diagnóstico prévio sobre os resultados obtidos foi analisado. Os estudantes com DTL apresentaram desempenho significativamente melhor no uso de todas as FE avaliadas. O fator diagnóstico prévio teve efeito significativo sobre a atenção executiva (p <0,001, parcial η2 = 0,77), memória operativa (p <0,001, parcial η2 = 0,67), flexibilidade cognitiva (p <0,01). , parcial η2 = .15) e planejamento (p <.001, parcial η2 = .63). Em todos os casos, o tamanho do efeito foi forte, exceto na flexibilidade cognitiva, onde foi moderada. A especificidade do DEL e sua relação com os FE são discutidos. Os resultados suportariam a tese da não especificidade no DEL e a possível presença de disfunções cognitivas gerais subjacentes ao distúrbio.Las funciones ejecutivas (FE) constituyen un conjunto de habilidades implicadas en el control y regulación del funcionamiento cognitivo. La relación entre FE y desarrollo del lenguaje es especialmente relevante en la conceptualización de los trastornos lingüísticos. El objetivo del estudio consistía en explorar el uso diferencial de FE en dos grupos: Desarrollo Lingüístico Típico (DLT) y Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje (TEL). Participaron 44 estudiantes (56,82% niños), 22 DLT y 22 TEL, con edades entre 6,00–6,92 años (M=6.17, DT=.19). El factor diagnóstico previo mostró efectos significativos en atención ejecutiva (p<.001, η2 parcial =.77), memoria de trabajo (p<.001, η2 parcial =.67), flexibilidad cognitiva (p<.01, η2 parcial =.15), y planificación (p<.001, η2 parcial =.63). En todos los casos, salvo en flexibilidad cognitiva, el tamaño del efecto fue fuerte. Los resultados avalarían la tesis de no especificidad en TEL y la posible presencia de disfunciones cognitivas generales que subyacen al trastorno. Cómo citar este artículo: Ambiado-Lillo, M., Navarro, J.-J. & Ibáñez-Alfonso, J.A. (2020). Funciones Ejecutivas en Estudiantes con Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje al Comienzo de la Escolarización Básica. Revista Colombiana de Psicología, 29(2), 57-72. https://doi.org/10.15446/rcp.v29n2.7939

Cognitive Intervention Programs in Minors Belonging to Disadvantaged Contexts in Spain: A Systematic Review

Research studies show a strong influence of socioeconomic status (SES) on human development, and how the exposure to risk contexts in the earliest stages translates into dangers in the cognitive development of children and adolescents. To alleviate these consequences and favour development, different cognitive training programs have contributed to this field by identifying the criteria of efficacy. This systematic review identifies and synthesizes the evidence of cognitive intervention studies implemented with psychosocial risk groups carried out in Spain. The search strategy was adapted to different databases. Only studies published in English or Spanish and developed in Spain that included interventions applied in populations aged 5 to 18 years with a low SES were included. The analysis of the literature showed nine interventions that indicated an improvement in those cognitive functions worked with low SES children. The cognitive domains that most worked were executive functions, followed by social cognition and language. After reviewing the available literature, a clear scarcity of interventions carried out in Spain was observed. Variables such as age, cognitive functions or personal vulnerability were identified as factors to be taken into account in future lines of research due to their influence on minors. These findings indicate the relevance of this review to help decision-making in relation to the actions to be carried out by the competent bodies in Spain

Neuropsychological Stimulation Program for Children from Low Socioeconomic Backgrounds: Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: Guatemala remains one of the poorest countries in Central America and suffers from high rates of social inequality and violence. In addition to the negative impact that two years without attending school has had on Guatemalan children due to the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, this unfavourable socioeconomic context poses a risk to children’s emotional and cognitive development. This work presents a protocol for implementing a cognitive and emotional stimulation program aimed at increasing the academic performance of these children and consequently improving their quality of life. Methods: The protocol proposes the implementation of a randomized controlled trial to assess the efficacy of a 24-session-long stimulation program. It targets the cognitive functions of attention, language, executive functions, and social cognition, using the digital neurorehabilitation platform NeuronUP. The participants (n = 480) will be randomly assigned to an Experimental or Control group. Pre- and post-intervention assessments will be carried out, together with a follow-up in the next academic year, in which both groups will change roles. Results will be compared for the first and second years, looking for differences in academic and cognitive performance between groups. Discussion: Mid- and long-term outcomes are still unknown, but effective interventions based on this protocol are expected to facilitate the following benefits for participants: (1) improved cognitive and emotional development; (2) improved academic performance; (3) improved well-being. We expect to create a validated neuropsychological stimulation program that could be applied in similar socioeconomically disadvantaged contexts around the world to help these children improve their life chances.Agency for International Cooperation and Development (AACID, in Spanish) from the Junta de Andalucía Government, Spain, under the project “Mejora del rendimiento académico y la calidad de vida de menores vulnerables de Guatemala: programa integral de estimulación cognitiva y emocional, desarrollo de huertos escolares y fortalecimiento de la docencia a distancia ante el reto del COVID-19” [Improvement of the academic performance and quality of life in vulnerable minors from Guatemala: Integral cognitive and emotional stimulation program, development of school orchards, and strengthening of distance teaching amidst the challenge of COVID-19], grant number 0C138/2020Grant from FEDER Junta de Andalucía-Consejería de Transformación Económica, Industria, Conocimiento y Universidades/Project E-SEJ-754-UGR2