The Evolution of Primate Societies - Chapter 3

Compared with other primates, New World monkeys display relatively limited ecological variability. New World monkey anatomy and social systems, however, are extremely diverse. Several unique morphological features (e.g., claws, prehensile tails) and uncommon patterns of social organization (e.g., paternal care, cooperative breeding, female dispersal) have evolved in some platyrrhine species. Social organization and mating patterns include typical harem- like structures where mating is largely polygynous, and large multimale, multifemale groups with promiscuous mating and fi ssion- fusion societies. In addition, some species are socially monogamous and polyandrous. Even closely related species may exhibit strikingly different social organizations, as the example of the squirrel monkeys demonstrates (Mitchell et al. 1991; Boinski et al. 2005b). New World monkey behavior varies within species as well as between them. While the behavior of many species is known from only one study site, intriguing patterns of intraspecific variation are beginning to emerge from observations of populations that sometimes live in close proximity. For example, spider monkeys are often described as showing sex- segregated ranging behavior. Several studies show that males range farther, travel faster, and use larger areas than females, who tend to restrict their habitual ranging to smaller core areas within a group’s large territory (Symington 1988; Chapman 1990; Shimooka 2005). In at least one well- studied population in Yasuní National Park, Ecuador, however, males and females both travel over the entire community home range, and different females within the community show little evidence of occupying distinct core areas (Spehar et al. 2010). Similarly, in most well- studied populations of spider monkeys, females disperse and the resident males within a group are presumed to be close relatives—a suggestion corroborated by genetic data for one local population of spider monkeys in Yasuní. Still, in a different local population, males are not closely related to one another, an unexpected pattern if signifi cant male philopatry were common (Di Fiore 2009; Di Fiore et al. 2009). While the causes of this local variation in group genetic structure are not clear, it may be signifi cant that the groups examined likely had different histories of contact with humans. For longlived animals who occupy relatively small social groups, the loss of even a handful of individuals to hunting, or to any other demographic disturbance, can have a dramatic impact on a group’s genetic structure. Intragroup social relationships, in turn, are likely to be infl uenced by patterns of intragroup relatedness and by the relative availability of social partners of different age or sex class (chapter 21, this volume). Thus, historical and demographic contingencies are likely to create conditions where considerable local, intrapopulation variation in social systems exists. Slight changes in ecological conditions may also contribute to variation in the behavior of individuals living in a single population over time. For example, some authors have hypothesized that howler monkey populations may undergo dramatic fluctuations in size and composition in response to several ecological factors, including resource abundance, parasite and predation pressure, and climate (Milton 1982; Crockett & Eisenberg 1986; Crockett 1996; Milton 1996; Rudran & Fernandez- Duque 2003). This variability, not only among populations, but also within populations across time highlights the need for long- term studies. In sum, our understanding of the behavior of New World monkeys has increased dramatically over the past 25 years. This understanding highlights how their behavior varies within populations over time and among populations or species across space. As our knowledge of platyrrhine behavior continues to unfold and is enriched via additional long- term studies, a central challenge will be to explain how these variations arise. It will be important to entertain adaptive explanations while acknowledging that some differences may emerge via stochastic changes in demography (Struhsaker 2008) or nongenetic, relatively short- term, nonadaptive responses to sudden ecological change

The floater's dilemma: use of space by wild solitary Azara's owl monkeys, Aotus azarae , in relation to group ranges

The fate and behaviour of animals that leave their natal group (‘floaters’) is usually poorly understood, which can limit the understanding of a species' population dynamics. Attempted immigrations can have serious negative effects on residents who therefore may forcibly reject intruders. Consequently, floaters face a dilemma: they need to leave their natal range to find a breeding territory while trying to avoid potentially lethal rejections from established groups. To examine the hypothesis that floating Azara's owl monkeys avoid established groups temporally, we compared time-matched locations of floaters and groups with randomly selected distances. To examine the hypothesis that floaters avoid established groups spatially, we compared the utilization distribution overlap indices (UDOIs) for core areas of floaters and groups with randomly expected UDOIs. Based on average home range sizes and areas of overlap between floaters, we estimated the floater density in the study area to be 0.2e0.5 per group. The temporal avoidance hypothesis was not supported, since time-matched distances were smaller than distances of random locations, and not larger as predicted under this hypothesis. The spatial avoidance hypothesis, in contrast, was supported, with smaller UDOIs for core ranges than predicted. In conclusion, solitary owl monkeys seem to solve the floater's dilemma by trying to stay in relatively close proximity to groups while still avoiding their core ranges. Floaters thus maximize the number of groups with which they have contact, while being able to leave a group's territory quickly if detected by residents. While no marked sex differences in patterns were detected, there was a strong stochastic element to the number of floaters of a particular sex, thus resulting in a locally uneven operational sex ratio. This, in turn, can have important consequences for various aspects of the population dynamics.The Environmental Sustainability Research Centre of the University of Derby and the Discipline of Biological Sciences provided money for Open Access publication.L.S.B. Leakey Foundation, National Geographic Society and the National Science Foundation of the U.S.A. (NSF-BCS-0621020, 0837921 (REU), 0924352 (REU), 1026991 (REU), 1219368 (RAPID) and 1232349 (2012)

Preliminary study on the ecology, behaviour and demography of the Bare-faced Curassow (Crax fasciolata) in the gallery forest of the Pilagá River, Formosa, Argentina

En Argentina se encuentran seis especies de crácidos, de las cuales el Muitú (Crax fasciolata) es la más amenazada y la de distribución más restringida en el país. Debido a que sus principales poblaciones parecen existir a lo largo de los riachos del este formoseño, se trabajó en la selva en galería del riacho Pilagá en la Estancia Guaycolec para (1) realizar la primera evaluación sistemática y cuantitativa en Argentina de una población de Muitú, y (2) evaluar la eficacia relativa de muestreos por tierra y agua, cámaras trampa y emisión de vocalizaciones grabadas (“playback”) como técnicas para el relevamiento poblacional de la especie. Durante 20 días se realizaron 22 muestreos en transectas terrestres y 8 en transectas sobre el curso de agua que resultaron en la detección de Muitú en 22 ocasiones (39 individuos). Las 10 cámaras trampa generaron 227 fotos de Muitú entre octubre de 2010 y julio de 2012 (4007 días-cámara). Tres de las 10 pruebas de emisión de vocalizaciones resultaron en contacto con un individuo. Los individuos fueron registrados solos o en grupos pequeños de 2–5 individuos, exclusivamente durante el día, más frecuentemente con temperaturas bajas e intermedias y principalmente en sitios cercanos al riacho. Dada la ausencia de reservas nacionales y provinciales que protejan las selvas en galería del este formoseño, resulta imperativo implementar estrategias de conservación de la especie que incorporen a las estancias privadas características de la zona.In Argentina there are six species of cracids, the Bare-faced Curassow (Crax fasciolata) being the most endangered and geographically restricted. Given that the main populations of the Barefaced Curassow apparently exist along the rivers of eastern Formosa, the study was conducted in the gallery forests of the Pilagá River in the Guaycolec Ranch to (1) produce the first systematic and quantitative study of a Bare-faced Curassow population in the country, and (2) to evaluate the effectiveness of population assessments conducted through land, water, camera traps, and playbacks as techniques for assessing the population status of the species. During 20 days, 22 assessments were conducted on land and 8 by water, which resulted in the detection of Barefaced Curassow on 22 separate occasions (39 individuals). The camera traps produced 227 pictures of Bare-faced Curassow between October 2010 and July 2012 (4007 camera-days). Contact was made with an individual following 3 of the 10 playback sessions. The Bare-faced Curassow was always sighted as single individuals or in small groups of 2–5 individuals, exclusively during the day, more frequently with low and mild temperatures and in close proximity to the river. Due to the lack of national and provincial areas that can protect the gallery forests of eastern Formosa, it is imperative to develop conservation strategies for the species that consider the private ranches characteristic of the regionFil: Fernández Duque, Facundo. Universidad Nacional de Formosa; ArgentinaFil: Huck, Maren. University of Derby; Reino UnidoFil: Dávalos, Víctor. University of Pennsylvania; Estados Unidos. Universidad Nacional de Formosa; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Nordeste. Centro de Ecología Aplicada del Litoral. Universidad Nacional del Nordeste. Centro de Ecología Aplicada del Litoral; ArgentinaFil: Fernandez Duque, Eduardo. Consejo Nacional de Invest.cientif.y Tecnicas. Centro Cientifico Tecnol.conicet - Nordeste. Centro de Ecologia Aplicada del Litoral (i); Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Formosa; Argentina. University of Pennsylvania; Estados Unido

Relationship between moonlight and nightly activity patterns of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) and some of its prey species in Formosa, Northern Argentina

The moon can profoundly influence the activity patterns of animals. If predators are more successful under bright moonlight, prey species are likely to respond by shifting their own activity patterns (predator-avoidance hypothesis). However, the assumption that prey will necessarily avoid full-moon nights does not take into account that moonlight also allows prey to more easily detect predators, and to forage more efficiently. Thus, nightly activity patterns could depend on night vision capabilities (visual-acuity hypothesis). To consider the possible influences of moonlight and to distinguish between these hypotheses, we used camera-trapping records of a predator, the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), and several of its night-active prey to compare activity patterns under different moonlight conditions. The ocelots' activity patterns were not strongly related to moonlight, but showed a slight tendency for higher activity during brighter nights. Tapeti rabbits (Sylvilagus brasiliensis) and brocket deer (Mazama americana) showed a clear preference for brighter nights. White-eared opossums (Didelphis albiventris) also showed a trend to be less active in new moon light. In contrast, smaller grey four-eyed opossums (Philander opossum) and the poor eye-sight nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) showed similar activity patterns across all moon phases. Since activity patterns of most prey species were not shifted away from the activity of the ocelot, the differences between species are probably linked to their night vision capabilities, and emphasise the need for more information on the visual system of these taxa. Their activity patterns seem to be less strongly linked to avoidance of predation than previously thought, suggesting that foraging and predator detection benefits may play a more important role than usually acknowledged.The cameras were partly funded by a National Geographic Society/Waitt grant to MH (grant number NGS 1072-78) and partly by quality-related funding through the Research Excellence Framework to the Biological Sciences Research Group of the University of Derby. The long-term camera-trap monitoring was in part made possible through grants to EFD and the Owl Monkey Project from the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation, National Geographic Society and the National Science Foundation of the USA (NSF-BCS-0621020, 0837921 (REU), 0924352 (REU), 1026991 (REU), 1219368 (RAPID) and 1232349 (2012)

Double effort: parental behavior of wild Azara's owl monkeys in the face of twins

In species of mammals that habitually bear single offspring, like most anthropoid primates, the occurrence of twins is expected to impose considerable energetic costs on the caretakers. The question then arises of how caregivers cope with the potentially increased costs of raising twins. These increased costs should lead to differing developmental rates in twins when compared to singletons, and/or to changes in the caregivers' behavior. Likewise, time budgets of parents of singletons are expected to differ from those of adults without offspring. Additionally, if twinning was an adaptive response to favorable ecological conditions, it should be more likely in years with high food abundance. Following the birth in 2011 of two sets of twins in a wild population of pair-living Azara's owl monkeys (Aotus azarae) in Northern Argentina, we used long-term demographic, behavioral, and phenological data to compare a) the proportion of time that singleton and twin infants were carried by either parent, b) adult time-budgets and ranging behavior in groups with zero, one, or two infants, and c) the availability of food in 2011 with food availability in other years. Twins, like singletons, were carried nearly exclusively by the male, and they were carried slightly more than singletons, suggesting a relatively inflexible pattern of infant care in the species. Time budgets showed that twin parents foraged more and moved less than singleton parents or groups without infants, despite the fact that phenological data indicate that fruit availability in 2011 was not substantially higher than in some of the other years. Overall, twinning thus presumably increased costs to breeders, especially males, but its effect on animals’ long-term reproductive success remains unclear.National Science Foundation (BCS-1219368); National Geographic Society (9053-11); German Science Foundation (HU1746-2 & 3); het Vreedefonds; Stichting Fundatie van de Vrijvrouwe van Renswoude te‘s-Gravenhage; Stichting Jo Kolk Studiefonds; de Stichting dr.Hendrik Muller's VaderlandschFonds; Wenner-Gren Foundation; L.S.B. Leakey Foundation; National Science Foundation (BCS- 0621020); the University of Pennsylvania Research Foundation; Zoological Society of San Dieg

Actividad física con videojuegos serios para adultos mayores

In the context of digital animation and games are the serious video games for exercising, which aim to stimulate the mobility of the whole body through the use of interactive environments with immersive experiences that simulate sensations of presence. Serious video games become the technological approach to physical activity that meets the needs of users when exercising. This research aims to analyze through a systematic review of 54 articles on physical activity through serious video games in the elderly people. The search for research was carried out through Scopus, Scientific Electronic Library Online and the Google Scholar search engine. Among the main findings, the importance of physical activity through serious video games in elderly stands out because it is one of the main strategies for maintaining functional capacity, physical capacity, biopsychosocial aspects, health promotion and disease prevention.En el contexto de la animación digital y los juegos se encuentran los videojuegos serios para el ejercicio, los cuales pretenden estimular la movilidad del cuerpo entero mediante el uso de ambientes virtuales interactivos con experiencias inmersivas que simulan sensaciones de presencia. Los videojuegos serios se convierten en el enfoque tecnológico de la actividad física que responde a necesidades evidenciadas en los usuarios al momento de hacer ejercicio. Esta investigación tiene como objetivo analizar por medio de una revisión sistemática de 54 artículos sobre actividad física a través de videojuegos serios en adultos mayores. La búsqueda de investigaciones se llevó a cabo a través de las bases de datos de Scopus, Scientific Electronic Library Online y el motor de búsqueda Google Académico. Entre los principales hallazgos se destaca la importancia de la actividad física a través de los videojuegos serios en los adultos mayores porque es una de las principales estrategias de mantenimiento de la capacidad funcional, la capacidad física, los aspectos biopsicosociales, la promoción de la salud y la prevención de la enfermedad

Moonstruck Primates: Owl Monkeys (Aotus) Need Moonlight for Nocturnal Activity in Their Natural Environment

Primates show activity patterns ranging from nocturnality to diurnality, with a few species showing activity both during day and night. Among anthropoids (monkeys, apes and humans), nocturnality is only present in the Central and South American owl monkey genus Aotus. Unlike other tropical Aotus species, the Azara's owl monkeys (A. azarai) of the subtropics have switched their activity pattern from strict nocturnality to one that also includes regular diurnal activity. Harsher climate, food availability, and the lack of predators or diurnal competitors, have all been proposed as factors favoring evolutionary switches in primate activity patterns. However, the observational nature of most field studies has limited an understanding of the mechanisms responsible for this switch in activity patterns. The goal of our study was to evaluate the hypothesis that masking, namely the stimulatory and/or inhibitory/disinhibitory effects of environmental factors on synchronized circadian locomotor activity, is a key determinant of the unusual activity pattern of Azara's owl monkeys. We use continuous long-term (6–18 months) 5-min-binned activity records obtained with actimeter collars fitted to wild owl monkeys (n = 10 individuals) to show that this different pattern results from strong masking of activity by the inhibiting and enhancing effects of ambient luminance and temperature. Conclusive evidence for the direct masking effect of light is provided by data showing that locomotor activity was almost completely inhibited when moonlight was shadowed during three lunar eclipses. Temperature also negatively masked locomotor activity, and this masking was manifested even under optimal light conditions. Our results highlight the importance of the masking of circadian rhythmicity as a determinant of nocturnality in wild owl monkeys and suggest that the stimulatory effects of dim light in nocturnal primates may have been selected as an adaptive response to moonlight. Furthermore, our data indicate that changes in sensitivity to specific environmental stimuli may have been an essential key for evolutionary switches between diurnal and nocturnal habits in primates

The diversity of population responses to environmental change

This is the final version. Available from Wiley via the DOI in this record.Data available from the Dryad Digital Repository: https:// doi.org/10.5061/dryad.d5f54s7The current extinction and climate change crises pressure us to predict population dynamics with ever-greater accuracy. Although predictions rest on the well-advanced theory of age-structured populations, two key issues remain poorly explored. Specifically, how the age-dependency in demographic rates and the year-to-year interactions between survival and fecundity affect stochastic population growth rates. We use inference, simulations and mathematical derivations to explore how environmental perturbations determine population growth rates for populations with different age-specific demographic rates and when ages are reduced to stages. We find that stage- vs. age-based models can produce markedly divergent stochastic population growth rates. The differences are most pronounced when there are survival-fecundity-trade-offs, which reduce the variance in the population growth rate. Finally, the expected value and variance of the stochastic growth rates of populations with different age-specific demographic rates can diverge to the extent that, while some populations may thrive, others will inevitably go extinct.Max Planck Society, Marie Curie FellowshipERCGerman Research FoundationSwiss National Science FoundationNational Science FoundationNational Institute of AgingRamon y Cajal Research GrantWenner-Gren FoundationLeakey FoundationNational Geographic SocietyZoological Society of San DiegoUniversity of PennsylvaniaArgentinean National Council of Researc

Correction : Chaparro et al. Incidence, Clinical Characteristics and Management of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Spain: Large-Scale Epidemiological Study. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 2885

The authors wish to make the following corrections to this paper [...]