Environmental risk assessment of genetically modified plants - concepts and controversies

Background and purpose: In Europe, the EU Directive 2001/18/EC lays out the main provisions of environmental risk assessment (ERA) of genetically modified (GM) organisms that are interpreted very differently by different stakeholders. The purpose of this paper is to: (a) describe the current implementation of ERA of GM plants in the EU and its scientific shortcomings, (b) present an improved ERA concept through the integration of a previously developed selection procedure for identification of non-target testing organisms into the ERA framework as laid out in the EU Directive 2001/18/EC and its supplement material (Commission Decision 2002/623/EC), (c) describe the activities to be carried out in each component of the ERA and (d) propose a hierarchical testing scheme. Lastly, we illustrate the outcomes for three different crop case examples. Main features: Implementation of the current ERA concept of GM crops in the EU is based on an interpretation of the EU regulations that focuses almost exclusively on the isolated bacteria-produced novel proteins with little consideration of the whole plant. Therefore, testing procedures for the effect assessment of GM plants on non-target organisms largely follow the ecotoxicological testing strategy developed for pesticides. This presumes that any potential adverse effect of the whole GM plant and the plant-produced novel compound can be extrapolated from testing of the isolated bacteriaproduced novel compound or can be detected in agronomic field trials. This has led to persisting scientific criticism. Results: Based on the EU ERA framework, we present an improved ERA concept that is system oriented with the GM plant at the centre and integrates a procedure for selection of testing organisms that do occur in the receiving environment. We also propose a hierarchical testing scheme from laboratory studies to field trials and we illustrate the outcomes for three different crop case examples. Conclusions and recommendations: Our proposed concept can alleviate a number of deficits identified in the current approach to ERA of GM plants. It allows the ERA to be tailored to the GM plant case and the receiving environment

Using the Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix to synthesize biofuel and bioenergy impact assessment results: the example of medium scale bioenergy heat options

Despite the potential opportunities, there remain widespread concerns about bioenergy and biofuel feedstock sustainability, assessment and policy. This paper illustrates the value of the Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix (RIAM) for transparently presenting evidence and judgements relating to four biomass options that are potentially suitable for supplying heat to a university-sized facility. The RIAM approach provides comparable scores for: soybean biodiesel, waste cooking oil biodiesel, anaerobically co-digested food waste and manure; and timber pellets made from sawmill by-product. The high-level nature of the RIAM allows the user to structure a broader range of considerations and contingencies than the life-cycle approach embodied in EU biofuel legislation. We advocate the RIAM not as a substitute for LCA or any other form of assessment in a bioenergy context, but as a means of synthesising the results of different types of impact assessment and for making broader debates and uncertainties explicit, such that non-specialist knowledge users are both guided and made aware of differing scientific and stakeholder opinion