New Zealand’s Food Waste: Estimating the Tonnes, Value, Calories and Resources Wasted

We used macro-economic data and aggregated waste data to estimate that, in 2011, New Zealand households generated over 224,000 tonnes of food waste, and New Zealand industry generated over 103,000 tonnes of food waste. We split New Zealand’s food waste into 14 food-waste categories and found that 7% is related to “fresh” produce, and 93% “processed” food waste. The value of New Zealand’s food waste in 2011 is estimated to be NZ $568 million, or$131 per person. Furthermore, New Zealand’s food waste represents 163 ˆ 109 calories in total, and avoidable food waste would be able to feed between 50,000 and 80,000 people a year. New Zealand food waste embodies 4.2 ˆ 106 tonnes of CO2-e, 4.7 ˆ 109 m3 of water, and 29 ˆ 103 TJ of energy. Nonetheless, we find that, compared to other nations, New Zealanders waste less food per capita by weight, value and calorie

Heat-pulse measurements of sap flow in olives for automating irrigation: tests, root flow and diagnostics of water stress

26 páginas, 10 figuras, 1 tabla, 32 referencias.-- [email protected] compensation heat-pulse method for measuring sap flow is tested here in olive trees (Olea europaea L.). We describe a rigorous three-way examination of the robustness of the technique for this species, and examine the potential of the technique for an automatic control of the irrigation system. Two tests were carried out using heat-pulse gear inserted into the stem of 12-year-old ‘Manzanilla’ olive trees. One test used forced-flow through a stem section, and the other involved measured water uptake by an excised tree. The measured sap flow in these two tests was in agreement with calculations from heat-pulse velocities when using a standard ‘wound correction’ to account for the presence of the probes and the disruption to the sap flow. Thus, this technique for monitoring transpiration can, we feel, be used with confidence in olives. The third experiment was carried out in the field, where we analysed sap flow data from two 29- year-old olive trees—one tree was under regular drip irrigation and the other was from dry-farming conditions. We use measurements of sap flow in the trunk to examine the hydraulic functioning of the tree, and to explore some diagnostics of water stress. Our heat-pulse measurements in the irrigated olive tree exhibited a profile of sap flow that was weighted towards the outer xylem of the tree trunk while the water-stressed trees in the field showed a profile of sap flow weighted towards the centre of the trunk. The loss of hydraulic functioning in the outermost section of the vascular system, as a result of water stress, we consider to be due both to stomatal control and to embolisms in the xylem vessels. The fourth experiment was also carried out in the field, in which sap flow measurements were made at three locations in the trunk as well as in two roots of another 29-year-old olive tree. The soil explored by each root, on opposite sides of the trunk, was differentially wetted by separate irrigation of each side. Our data showed that the surface roots were able to absorb water immediately after wetting, despite a reasonably prolonged period of moderate drought. Root activity quickly shifted to the regions where the soil had been wetted. A root in dry soil exhibited no flow at night, whereas sap flows of about 0.02 l h 1 were measured around midnight in the root drawing water from the wetter soil. Our observations suggest that the hydraulic behaviour of the trunk and surface roots might be used as a diagnostic of the onset, or severity, of water stress. Here there is not the imperative to replicate, for the prime goal is not transpiration estimation. Rather interpretation of the diurnal dynamics is used to infer the onset, or severity of water stress. The compensation heat-pulse seems a suitable technique for automatically controlling the irrigation system of olives, and probably other trees, based either on the estimation of the short-time dynamics of transpiration, or on changes in the hydraulic behaviour of the trees.The Comisión Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnología of the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science financial support this project.Peer reviewe

Heat-pulse measurements of sap flow in olives for automating irrigation: tests, root flow and diagnostics of water stress

26 páginas, 10 figuras, 1 tabla, 32 referencias.-- [email protected] compensation heat-pulse method for measuring sap flow is tested here in olive trees (Olea europaea L.). We describe a rigorous three-way examination of the robustness of the technique for this species, and examine the potential of the technique for an automatic control of the irrigation system. Two tests were carried out using heat-pulse gear inserted into the stem of 12-year-old ‘Manzanilla’ olive trees. One test used forced-flow through a stem section, and the other involved measured water uptake by an excised tree. The measured sap flow in these two tests was in agreement with calculations from heat-pulse velocities when using a standard ‘wound correction’ to account for the presence of the probes and the disruption to the sap flow. Thus, this technique for monitoring transpiration can, we feel, be used with confidence in olives. The third experiment was carried out in the field, where we analysed sap flow data from two 29- year-old olive trees—one tree was under regular drip irrigation and the other was from dry-farming conditions. We use measurements of sap flow in the trunk to examine the hydraulic functioning of the tree, and to explore some diagnostics of water stress. Our heat-pulse measurements in the irrigated olive tree exhibited a profile of sap flow that was weighted towards the outer xylem of the tree trunk while the water-stressed trees in the field showed a profile of sap flow weighted towards the centre of the trunk. The loss of hydraulic functioning in the outermost section of the vascular system, as a result of water stress, we consider to be due both to stomatal control and to embolisms in the xylem vessels. The fourth experiment was also carried out in the field, in which sap flow measurements were made at three locations in the trunk as well as in two roots of another 29-year-old olive tree. The soil explored by each root, on opposite sides of the trunk, was differentially wetted by separate irrigation of each side. Our data showed that the surface roots were able to absorb water immediately after wetting, despite a reasonably prolonged period of moderate drought. Root activity quickly shifted to the regions where the soil had been wetted. A root in dry soil exhibited no flow at night, whereas sap flows of about 0.02 l h 1 were measured around midnight in the root drawing water from the wetter soil. Our observations suggest that the hydraulic behaviour of the trunk and surface roots might be used as a diagnostic of the onset, or severity, of water stress. Here there is not the imperative to replicate, for the prime goal is not transpiration estimation. Rather interpretation of the diurnal dynamics is used to infer the onset, or severity of water stress. The compensation heat-pulse seems a suitable technique for automatically controlling the irrigation system of olives, and probably other trees, based either on the estimation of the short-time dynamics of transpiration, or on changes in the hydraulic behaviour of the trees.The Comisión Interministerial de Ciencia y Tecnología of the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science financial support this project.Peer reviewe

Irrigation management in poplar (Populus spp.) plantations: A review

15 páginas.- 5 figuras.- 1 tabla.- 134 referencias.- Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119330Poplar (Populus spp.) is widely planted around the world and has been closely linked to human beings since ancient times due to its multiple beneficial utilizations both for the environment and society. As one of the fastest-growing tree species in temperate zones, the high growth rate of poplar is associated with its high waterdemand, which makes it vulnerable to water deficits. To maintain and improve the productivity and quality of poplar plantations, by alleviating the impact of soil water deficit on tree growth and health, irrigation has been long applied as an essential cultivation practice for poplar plantations around the world. However, both fundamentals for irrigation and technology innovations are limited by the lack of critical knowledge on the irrigation management practices in poplar plantations. In this work, data and information collected from questionnaires, literature, and a survey around the world, were used to investigate the current situation of irrigation management in poplar plantations. We present a summary of the currently applied irrigation regimes for poplars. Then, with the help of the literature and a global dataset of poplar growth compiled with data from 27 sites in five countries, we thoroughly analyzed and reviewed the main effects of irrigation on poplar plantations. Finally, the profitability of irrigation in poplar plantations is discussed. We conclude with some existing problems and future research directions for irrigation management of poplars. In addition to providing directions for the sustainable management of poplar plantations in global water-limited regions, this work also provides a reference for the water management in plantations of other tree species.This research was jointly supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31872702) and the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFD0600403) .Peer reviewe

Development and analysis of the Soil Water Infiltration Global database

In this paper, we present and analyze a novel global database of soil infiltration measurements, the Soil Water Infiltration Global (SWIG) database. In total, 5023 infiltration curves were collected across all continents in the SWIG database. These data were either provided and quality checked by the scientists who performed the experiments or they were digitized from published articles. Data from 54 different countries were included in the database with major contributions from Iran, China, and the USA. In addition to its extensive geographical coverage, the collected infiltration curves cover research from 1976 to late 2017. Basic information on measurement location and method, soil properties, and land use was gathered along with the infiltration data, making the database valuable for the development of pedotransfer functions (PTFs) for estimating soil hydraulic properties, for the evaluation of infiltration measurement methods, and for developing and validating infiltration models. Soil textural information (clay, silt, and sand content) is available for 3842 out of 5023 infiltration measurements ( ∼ 76%) covering nearly all soil USDA textural classes except for the sandy clay and silt classes. Information on land use is available for 76% of the experimental sites with agricultural land use as the dominant type ( ∼ 40%). We are convinced that the SWIG database will allow for a better parameterization of the infiltration process in land surface models and for testing infiltration models. All collected data and related soil characteristics are provided online in *.xlsx and *.csv formats for reference, and we add a disclaimer that the database is for public domain use only and can be copied freely by referencing it. Supplementary data are available at https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.885492 (Rahmati et al., 2018). Data quality assessment is strongly advised prior to any use of this database. Finally, we would like to encourage scientists to extend and update the SWIG database by uploading new data to it

The development of alkoxy-based sol-gel processing for magnetoresistive manganite thin films

This dissertation presents, for the first time, the successful development of an all-alkoxy based, sol-gel process for integrating thin films of magnetoresistive doped-lanthanide manganites onto silicon-based substrates. Crystallization of the requisite perovskite phase at temperatures below 650°C resulted from the incorporation of all-alkoxide precursors, and in particular, Mn[OC(CH 3 ) 3 )] 2 . This latter precursor, when combined with the polyfunctional solvent, 2-methoxyethanol, exhibited high solubility and hydrolytic reactivity. This accomplishment represents a significant new contribution because low carbon-content manganese(II) alkoxides are stable, insoluble coordinate polymers. Orange and pinkish-orange solutions, also synthesized for the first time, were free from products of aerobic oxidation, and hence, contained no brown discoloration. A partial hydrolysis of h = 0.25 produced a polymeric sol system, conferring both spinnable viscosities and excellent sol longevity. Post-coating hydrolysis via humidified air proved essential to yield transparent, dense, and defect-free amorphous coatings. Conversion into a fine-grain, polycrystalline microstructure occurred above 600°C on platinized-Si(100) and above 650°C on Si(100). The cubic lattice parameters of the films (i.e., a = ∼ 3.90 Å) were in excellent agreement with values published in the literature for bulk, polycrystalline powders. Typical grain sizes started at 10-15 nm, increasing to 20-25 nm by 750°C. For films deposited on Si(100), magnetoresistance was observed in specimens heat treated at 700°C and 750°C, and for platinized-Si(100), 650°C, 700°C, and 750°C. Magnetoresistive response improved with heat-treatment temperature for the more refractory La0.67Ba 0.33 MnO 3 composition. The lead-doped counterpart offered the best property evolution, with T C = 320 K and T IM = 254 K by 750°C on platinized-Si(100). All corresponding transport curves were symmetric, demonstrating clear metal-insulator transitions (i.e., T IM ). High resistivities (i.e., ∼ 10 6 Ω-cm) were attributed to the fine-grain microstructure. Weak-field cycling between ±500 Oe yielded symmetrical loops with appreciable linear regions, a highly-desirable characteristic for magnetic sensing applications

Aspects of the water balance of an oats crop grown on a layered soil : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Soil Science at Massey University

The increasing pressure on our water resources, for irrigation in particular, has resulted in a growing awareness of the importance of water balance studies. In this thesis three aspects of the field water balance are investigated; evapotranspiration (ET) from well-watered crops, the upper limit of soil water storage in the field, and drainage. Daily ET values, measured by the Bowen ratio-energy balance method, are presented for an oats crop grown in winter and also for a number of summer crops, all of which were well-watered, ET measurements were also made over longer periods using a drainage lysimeter. It was found that the Penman, and Priestley and Taylor ET estimation procedures predicted ET with an accuracy of 15-20% and 8% for daily and weekly periods, respectively. The Priestley and Taylor method is simpler to use but requires an empirical constant to relate the 'equilibrium ET' to ET. This constant was found to be 1.21 for winter, spring and summer over a range of crops in the Manawatu. Net radiation data on a daylight basis were used to evaluate this constant, as seasonal variations in the constant were introduced when 24-hour data were used. Also it is easier to empirically estimate daylight than 24-hour net radiation. Long term ET estimates using the Priestley and Taylor method with net radiation calculated from incoming solar radiation, were in reasonable agreement with the drainage lysimeter measurements of ET for the oats crop. A theoretical development is presented that describes water retention in soils underlain by a coarse-textured stratum. This development accounts for the physical character of the overlying soil, the depth to the coarse layer, and the coarseness of the underlay. Field data are presented for the Manawatu fine sandy loam, a soil with a coarse-textured layer at 90 cm. For this soil the layering resulted in an additional 55 mm of water storage at the cessation of drainage, an increase of 31% over a similar hypothetical soil with the coarse stratum absent. Drainage from a permeable soil underlain by a coarse-textured layer is investigated. Simplified theory is used to develop a model relating the drainage flux at the base of the soil to the water stored in the overlying soil. Despite significant hysteresis in both the water retentivity curve of the overlying soil and the hydraulic conductivity-pressure potential relationship of the coarse layer, hysteresis had little effect on the storage-flux relation. The model simulated both the field drainage in the Manawatu fine sandy loam measured by a lysimeter, and field profile water storage found by neutron probe moisture measurements. The model indicates that only simple field measurements are needed to find the storage-flux relationship. The components of the water balance of an autumn-sown oats crop grown in the Manawatu are resolved. Drainage loss was found to constitute 60% of the rainfall, with the remaining amount being lost as ET

The Development of Alkoxy-Based Sol -Gel Processing for Magnetoresistive Manganite Thin Films

352 p.Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2005.The cubic lattice parameters of the films (i.e., a = ∼ 3.90 A) were in excellent agreement with values published in the literature for bulk, polycrystalline powders. Typical grain sizes started at 10--15 nm, increasing to 20--25 nm by 750°C. For films deposited on Si(100), magnetoresistance was observed in specimens heat treated at 700°C and 750°C, and for platinized-Si(100), 650°C, 700°C, and 750°C. Magnetoresistive response improved with heat-treatment temperature for the more refractory La0.67Ba0.33MnO3 composition. The lead-doped counterpart offered the best property evolution, with TC = 320 K and TIM = 254 K by 750°C on platinized-Si(100). All corresponding transport curves were symmetric, demonstrating clear metal-insulator transitions (i.e., TIM). High resistivities (i.e., ∼ 106 O-cm) were attributed to the fine-grain microstructure. Weak-field cycling between +/-500 Oe yielded symmetrical loops with appreciable linear regions, a highly-desirable characteristic for magnetic sensing applications.U of I OnlyRestricted to the U of I community idenfinitely during batch ingest of legacy ETD