Hygrothermal behaviour of hemp concrete; experimental evidences and modelling

This paper presents experimental hygrothermal data of an hemp concrete wall of dimensions 0.9×0.9×0.1 [m3]. The wall is instrumented with sensors to monitor temperature, relative humidity at the middle of the wall and incoming heat flows at the external surfaces. It is placed in a double climatic chamber that allows the regulation of temperature and relative humidity on each side of the wall, independently to each other. The experimental results leads to a clear identification of the coupling between the variation of the relative humidity inside the wall and its temperature. The validity of the commonly adopted assumptions for hygrothermal simulation are finally analyzed in the light of these experimental results. The material parameters used for the simulations are measured separately on decimetric samples of the same hemp concrete, which comes from the same mix and with the same apparent density

A Procedure to Measure the in-Situ Hygrothermal Behavior of Earth Walls

Rammed earth is a sustainable material with low embodied energy. However, its development as a building material requires a better evaluation of its moisture-thermal buffering abilities and its mechanical behavior. Both of these properties are known to strongly depend on the amount of water contained in wall pores and its evolution. Thus the aim of this paper is to present a procedure to measure this key parameter in rammed earth or cob walls by using two types of probes operating on the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) principle. A calibration procedure for the probes requiring solely four parameters is described. This calibration procedure is then used to monitor the hygrothermal behavior of a rammed earth wall (1.5 m × 1 m × 0.5 m), instrumented by six probes during its manufacture, and submitted to insulated, natural convection and forced convection conditions. These measurements underline the robustness of the calibration procedure over a large range of water content, even if the wall is submitted to quite important temperature variations. They also emphasize the importance of gravity on water content heterogeneity when the saturation is high, as well as the role of liquid-to-vapor phase change on the thermal behavior

Mesure du comportement hygrothermique du pisé

Massive rammed earth walls are known for their comfort of living and their ability to regulate the temperature and humidity inside buildings. The evolution of regulations – particularly the thermal ones (RT 2012) - now involves having buildings that meet stringent criteria. However, rammed earth buildings seem not to be in accordance with the references defined by these regulations. This suggests that criteria, other than the simple thermal resistance, should be taken into account to characterize the behavior of a rammed earth building. The coupled heat and mass transfers mechanisms occurring within a porous material such as rammed earth – which lead to this natural regulation – are well known empirically. However, their set scientific evidences are more difficult.The aim of the thesis was to develop a measurement chain of water and heat transfers in rammed earth, to observe and quantify them. A new rammed earth house has been studied during these three years. The thesis was then carried out in four phases:1.Development of a measurement chain (liquid water content probes, relative humidity, temperature and heat flux sensors). Each of the sensors was modified and adapted and calibrated to resist compaction and run in a dense material and containing clay;2.Geotechnical, hydric and thermal characterization of the material: particle size distribution, density, transfer of liquid and vapor, sorption, thermal conductivity, specific heat;3.Testing in laboratory at wall scale in a sealed box working as double climatic chambers designed in the laboratory. Four rammed earth walls were equipped with sensors developed in phase 1;4.Testing at a house scale: the reference house was equipped with the same sensors during construction and monitoring of transfers has been set up for at least 5 years.The main objectives were to instrument rammed earth walls during their manufacturing taking into account the compaction energy, to have a sensor calibration taking into account significant variations of in situ temperatures and record over a long period (at least 5 years) hydric and thermal conditions in the walls, as well as inside and outside the building.The obtained results demonstrate the phenomena of heat and water transfers occurring in the walls. The experimental results allow considering the development of models adapted to compacted earth.Les murs massifs en pisé sont connus pour leur confort d’habitation et leur capacité à réguler la température et l’humidité à l’intérieur des bâtiments. L’évolution des réglementations – notamment thermiques (RT 2012) – implique aujourd’hui d’avoir des bâtiments répondant à des critères drastiques. Or, le bâti en pisé semble, a priori, ne pas s’inscrire dans les références définies par ces règlements. Il semblerait donc qu’il faille prendre en compte d’autres critères que la simple résistance thermique pour caractériser le comportement d’un bâtiment en pisé. Les mécanismes couplés de transferts de masse et de chaleur qui ont lieu au sein d’un matériau poreux comme le pisé et qui conduisent à cette régulation naturelle sont bien connus empiriquement. Cependant, leurs mises en évidence scientifiques sont, quant à elles, plus difficiles.L’objectif de la thèse a été de développer une chaine de mesure des transferts hydriques et thermiques dans les bâtiments en pisé afin de les observer et de les quantifier. Une habitation neuve en pisé a été étudiée en particulier durant ces trois ans. La thèse s’est alors déroulée en quatre phases :1.Développement d’une chaine de mesure (capteurs de teneur en eau liquide, d’humidité relative, de température, de flux de chaleur). Chacun de ces capteurs a été modifié, adapté et étalonné pour résister au damage et fonctionner dans un matériau dense et contenant de l’argile ;2.Caractérisation géotechnique, thermique et hydrique du matériau : granulométrie, densité, transferts de liquide et de vapeur, sorption, conductivité thermique, chaleur spécifique ;3.Essais à l’échelle du mur en laboratoire dans un caisson étanche fonctionnant en double enceintes climatiques conçues au laboratoire. Quatre murs en pisé ont été équipés des capteurs développés en phase 1 ;4.Essais à l’échelle de l’habitation : la maison référence a été équipée des mêmes capteurs durant sa construction et un monitoring des transferts a été établis pour au moins 5 ans.Les objectifs principaux étaient d’instrumenter des murs en pisé durant leur fabrication en prenant en compte l’énergie de compaction, d’avoir un étalonnage des capteurs tenant compte des variations importantes de températures in situ et, d’enregistrer sur une longue période (au moins 5 ans) les conditions hydriques et thermiques dans les murs, ainsi qu’à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur de l’habitation.Les résultats obtenus mettent en évidence les phénomènes de transferts thermiques et hydriques se produisant dans le pisé. Les résultats expérimentaux permettent d’envisager la mise au point de modélisations adaptées à la terre compactée

Measurement of the hygrothermal behaviour of rammed earth

Les murs massifs en pisé sont connus pour leur confort d’habitation et leur capacité à réguler la température et l’humidité à l’intérieur des bâtiments. L’évolution des réglementations – notamment thermiques (RT 2012) – implique aujourd’hui d’avoir des bâtiments répondant à des critères drastiques. Or, le bâti en pisé semble, a priori, ne pas s’inscrire dans les références définies par ces règlements. Il semblerait donc qu’il faille prendre en compte d’autres critères que la simple résistance thermique pour caractériser le comportement d’un bâtiment en pisé. Les mécanismes couplés de transferts de masse et de chaleur qui ont lieu au sein d’un matériau poreux comme le pisé et qui conduisent à cette régulation naturelle sont bien connus empiriquement. Cependant, leurs mises en évidence scientifiques sont, quant à elles, plus difficiles.L’objectif de la thèse a été de développer une chaîne de mesure des transferts hydriques et thermiques dans les bâtiments en pisé afin de les observer et de les quantifier. Une habitation neuve en pisé a été étudiée en particulier durant ces trois ans. La thèse s’est alors déroulée en quatre phases :1 - Développement d’une chaine de mesure (capteurs de teneur en eau liquide, d’humidité relative, de température, de flux de chaleur). Chacun de ces capteurs a été modifié, adapté et étalonné pour résister au damage et fonctionner dans un matériau dense et contenant de l’argile ;2 - Caractérisation géotechnique, thermique et hydrique du matériau : granulométrie, densité, transferts de liquide et de vapeur, sorption, conductivité thermique, chaleur spécifique ;3 - Essais à l’échelle du mur en laboratoire dans un caisson étanche fonctionnant en double enceintes climatiques conçues au laboratoire. Quatre murs en pisé ont été équipés des capteurs développés en phase 1 ;4 - Essais à l’échelle de l’habitation : la maison référence a été équipée des mêmes capteurs durant sa construction et un monitoring des transferts a été établis pour au moins 5 ans.Les objectifs principaux étaient d’instrumenter des murs en pisé durant leur fabrication en prenant en compte l’énergie de compaction, d’avoir un étalonnage des capteurs tenant compte des variations importantes de températures in situ et, d’enregistrer sur une longue période (au moins 5 ans) les conditions hydriques et thermiques dans les murs, ainsi qu’à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur de l’habitation. Les résultats obtenus mettent en évidence les phénomènes de transferts thermiques et hydriques se produisant dans le pisé. Les résultats expérimentaux permettent d’envisager la mise au point de modélisations adaptées à la terre compactée.Massive rammed earth walls are known for their comfort of living and their ability to regulate the temperature and humidity inside buildings. The evolution of regulations – particularly the thermal ones (RT 2012) - now involves having buildings that meet stringent criteria. However, rammed earth buildings seem not to be in accordance with the references defined by these regulations. This suggests that criteria, other than the simple thermal resistance,should be taken into account to characterize the behavior of a rammed earth building. The coupled heat and mass transfers mechanisms occurring within a porous material such as rammed earth – which lead to this natural regulation – are well known empirically. However, their set scientific evidences are more difficult. The aim of the thesis was to develop a measurement chain of water and heat transfers in rammed earth, to observe and quantify them. A new rammed earth house has been studied during these three years. The thesis was then carried out in four phases:1. Development of a measurement chain (liquid water content probes, relative humidity, temperature and heat flux sensors). Each of the sensors was modified and adapted and calibrated to resist compaction and run in a dense material and containing clay;2. Geotechnical, hydric and thermal characterization of the material: particle size distribution, density, transfer of liquid and vapor, sorption, thermal conductivity,specific heat;3. Testing in laboratory at wall scale in a sealed box working as double climatic chambers designed in the laboratory. Four rammed earth walls were equipped with sensors developed in phase 1;4. Testing at a house scale: the reference house was equipped with the same sensors during construction and monitoring of transfers has been set up for at least 5 years.The main objectives were to instrument rammed earth walls during their manufacturing taking into account the compaction energy, to have a sensor calibration taking into account significant variations of in situ temperatures and record over a long period (at least 5 years) hydric and thermal conditions in the walls, as well as inside and outside the building.The obtained results demonstrate the phenomena of heat and water transfers occurring in the walls. The experimental results allow considering the development of models adapted to compacted earth

What do we know about rammed lime/coal slag?

International audienceNowadays, cement mixtures with fly ash or clinker from heavy industry (blast furnaces) for construction are known and still studied to increase their use. This approach is a form of recycling and recovery of by-products from the industry. However, the use of ashes from industry for construction is very old and used in France since the mid-19th century.This technique appeared then developed in the area of the cities of Lyon and Saint-Etienne, which had many foundry industries in the 19th century during the industrial era. Following a prefectural decree of 19 June 1856 prohibiting rammed earth (due to a flood of the Rhone River in Lyon) in the Region of Lyon and Saint-Etienne, slag coal mixed with lime were then massively used as a replacement of rammed earth thanks to its resistance to water. The construction technique is the same as for edifying rammed earth walls only change the materials. The walls are massive, monolithic and thick (50 cm) and seem to have hygrothermal comfort qualities similar to rammed earth walls. Renowned architects like Gaspard André (1840-1896) and Tony Garnier (1869-1948) used this material for architectural works that are still used today. According to local architects and building professionals in Lyon and Saint-Etienne, rammed lime/slag coal constructions represent hundreds of thousands of buildings. This technique, used for a hundred years in the region, is however largely unknown and no recent study has described the physicochemical characteristics of this material. In the current context of sustainable development and energy renovation of buildings, a thorough knowledge of this material would enable to renovate these constructions rather than destroying buildings because of the lack of knowledge of the material

A Procedure to Measure the in-Situ Hygrothermal Behavior of Earth Walls

Rammed earth is a sustainable material with low embodied energy. However, its development as a building material requires a better evaluation of its moisture-thermal buffering abilities and its mechanical behavior. Both of these properties are known to strongly depend on the amount of water contained in wall pores and its evolution. Thus the aim of this paper is to present a procedure to measure this key parameter in rammed earth or cob walls by using two types of probes operating on the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) principle. A calibration procedure for the probes requiring solely four parameters is described. This calibration procedure is then used to monitor the hygrothermal behavior of a rammed earth wall (1.5 m × 1 m × 0.5 m), instrumented by six probes during its manufacture, and submitted to insulated, natural convection and forced convection conditions. These measurements underline the robustness of the calibration procedure over a large range of water content, even if the wall is submitted to quite important temperature variations. They also emphasize the importance of gravity on water content heterogeneity when the saturation is high, as well as the role of liquid-to-vapor phase change on the thermal behavior

Hygrothermal behaviour of hemp concrete; experimental evidences and modelling

This paper presents experimental hygrothermal data of an hemp concrete wall of dimensions 0.9×0.9×0.1 [m3]. The wall is instrumented with sensors to monitor temperature, relative humidity at the middle of the wall and incoming heat flows at the external surfaces. It is placed in a double climatic chamber that allows the regulation of temperature and relative humidity on each side of the wall, independently to each other. The experimental results leads to a clear identification of the coupling between the variation of the relative humidity inside the wall and its temperature. The validity of the commonly adopted assumptions for hygrothermal simulation are finally analyzed in the light of these experimental results. The material parameters used for the simulations are measured separately on decimetric samples of the same hemp concrete, which comes from the same mix and with the same apparent density