Relationship between brain plasticity, learning and foraging performance in honey bees.

Brain structure and learning capacities both vary with experience, but the mechanistic link between them is unclear. Here, we investigated whether experience-dependent variability in learning performance can be explained by neuroplasticity in foraging honey bees. The mushroom bodies (MBs) are a brain center necessary for ambiguous olfactory learning tasks such as reversal learning. Using radio frequency identification technology, we assessed the effects of natural variation in foraging activity, and the age when first foraging, on both performance in reversal learning and on synaptic connectivity in the MBs. We found that reversal learning performance improved at foraging onset and could decline with greater foraging experience. If bees started foraging before the normal age, as a result of a stress applied to the colony, the decline in learning performance with foraging experience was more severe. Analyses of brain structure in the same bees showed that the total number of synaptic boutons at the MB input decreased when bees started foraging, and then increased with greater foraging intensity. At foraging onset MB structure is therefore optimized for bees to update learned information, but optimization of MB connectivity deteriorates with foraging effort. In a computational model of the MBs sparser coding of information at the MB input improved reversal learning performance. We propose, therefore, a plausible mechanistic relationship between experience, neuroplasticity, and cognitive performance in a natural and ecological context

Geosmin suppresses defensive behaviour and elicits unusual neural responses in honey bees.

Geosmin is an odorant produced by bacteria in moist soil. It has been found to be extraordinarily relevant to some insects, but the reasons for this are not yet fully understood. Here we report the first tests of the effect of geosmin on honey bees. A stinging assay showed that the defensive behaviour elicited by the bee's alarm pheromone component isoamyl acetate (IAA) is strongly suppressed by geosmin. Surprisingly, the suppression is, however, only present at very low geosmin concentrations, and disappears at higher concentrations. We investigated the underlying mechanisms at the level of the olfactory receptor neurons by means of electroantennography, finding the responses to mixtures of geosmin and IAA to be lower than to pure IAA, suggesting an interaction of both compounds at the olfactory receptor level. Calcium imaging of the antennal lobe (AL) revealed that neuronal responses to geosmin decreased with increasing concentration, correlating well with the observed behaviour. Computational modelling of odour transduction and coding in the AL suggests that a broader activation of olfactory receptor types by geosmin in combination with lateral inhibition could lead to the observed non-monotonic increasing-decreasing responses to geosmin and thus underlie the specificity of the behavioural response to low geosmin concentrations

Geosmin suppresses defensive behaviour and elicits unusual neural responses in honey bees

Geosmin is an odorant produced by bacteria in moist soil. It has been found to be extraordinarily relevant to some insects, but the reasons for this are not yet fully understood. Here we report the first tests of the effect of geosmin on honey bees. A stinging assay showed that the defensive behaviour elicited by the bee's alarm pheromone component isoamyl acetate (IAA) is strongly suppressed by geosmin. Surprisingly, the suppression is, however, only present at very low geosmin concentrations, and disappears at higher concentrations. We investigated the underlying mechanisms at the level of the olfactory receptor neurons by means of electroantennography, finding the responses to mixtures of geosmin and IAA to be lower than to pure IAA, suggesting an interaction of both compounds at the olfactory receptor level. Calcium imaging of the antennal lobe (AL) revealed that neuronal responses to geosmin decreased with increasing concentration, correlating well with the observed behaviour. Computational modelling of odour transduction and coding in the AL suggests that a broader activation of olfactory receptor types by geosmin in combination with lateral inhibition could lead to the observed non-monotonic increasing-decreasing responses to geosmin and thus underlie the specificity of the behavioural response to low geosmin concentrations

Activity and Enantioselectivity of the Hydroxynitrile Lyase MeHNL in Dry Organic Solvents

Water concentration affects both the enantioselectivity and activity of enzymes in dry organic media. Its influence has been investigated using the hydrocyanation of benzaldehyde catalyzed by hydroxynitrile lyase cross-linked enzyme aggregate (MeHNL-CLEA) as a model reaction. The enzyme displayed higher enantioselectivity at higher water concentration, thus suggesting a positive effect of enzyme flexibility on selectivity. The activity increased on reducing the solvent water content, but drastic dehydration of the enzyme resulted in a reversible loss of activity

The repeatability of cognitive performance:A meta-analysis

This is the author accepted manuscript. The final version is available from The Royal Society via the DOI in this record.Behavioural and cognitive processes play important roles in mediating an individual's interactions with its environment. Yet, while there is a vast literature on repeatable individual differences in behaviour, relatively little is known about the repeatability of cognitive performance. To further our understanding of the evolution of cognition, we gathered 44 studies on individual performance of 25 species across six animal classes and used meta-analysis to assess whether cognitive performance is repeatable. We compared repeatability (R) in performance (1) on the same task presented at different times (temporal repeatability), and (2) on different tasks that measured the same putative cognitive ability (contextual repeatability). We also addressed whether R estimates were influenced by seven extrinsic factors (moderators): type of cognitive performance measurement, type of cognitive task, delay between tests, origin of the subjects, experimental context, taxonomic class and publication status. We found support for both temporal and contextual repeatability of cognitive performance, with mean R estimates ranging between 0.15 and 0.28. Repeatability estimates were mostly influenced by the type of cognitive performance measures and publication status. Our findings highlight the widespread occurrence of consistent inter-individual variation in cognition across a range of taxa which, like behaviour, may be associated with fitness outcomes.PKYC is supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (PE1801); JOvH was funded by an ERC consolidator grant (616474). MC and this research was supported by a grant from the Human Frontier Science Program to ASC and JM-F (RGP0006/2015)

Effets de l'expérience sur la plasticité de la structure cérébrale et des capacités d'apprentissage olfactif des abeilles (Apis mellifera)

Les expériences vécues par un individu, vont moduler ses capacités d'apprentissage et induire des modifications structurales dans les régions cérébrales impliquées. Chez l'abeille, de la plasticité dépendante de l'expérience a été observée dans des centres cérébraux impliqués dans l'apprentissage et la mémoire : les corps pédonculés (CPs). Pourtant, les conséquences d'une telle plasticité sur les performances d'apprentissage sont inconnues. L'objectif de ma thèse était d'examiner les relations existantes entre expérience, capacités d'apprentissage et structure des CPs. La division du travail étant basée sur l'âge chez l'abeille, j'ai étudié la plasticité dépendante de l'expérience chez des abeilles jeunes, travaillant dans la ruche, mais aussi chez des abeilles plus âgées qui butinent à l'extérieur. J'ai d'abord observé que des abeilles exposées à un environnement appauvri en stimulations sensorielles et sociales pendant les premiers jours de vie adulte présentent un nombre élevé de boutons synaptiques dans les CPs, et une performance altérée dans un apprentissage dépendant des CPs, l'inversion de consigne. Cela suggère l'existence d'un élagage synaptique dépendant de l'expérience acquise dans la ruche, qui serait bénéfique pour les capacités d'apprentissage. J'ai observé un effet similaire de l'enrichissement environnemental lorsque les abeilles commencent à butiner. Le début du butinage s'est en effet accompagné d'une diminution du nombre de boutons synaptiques dans les CPs et d'une amélioration des performances en inversion de consigne. Une activité prolongée de butinage a eu les effets inverses, en particulier chez des abeilles qui, suite à un stress appliqué à la colonie, butinent avant l'âge normal. J'ai ainsi mis en évidence une relation négative entre le nombre de boutons synaptiques dans les CPs et les performances en inversion de consigne. Par la suite, j'ai utilisé un autre apprentissage dépendant des CPs, le patterning positif, afin de pouvoir conclure sur un déclin généralisé des capacités cognitives dépendantes des CPs chez les butineuses. J'ai montré l'implication du système cholinergique dans le déclin cognitif lié à l'expérience de butinage. Cette thèse réunit les premiers travaux analysant la plasticité dépendante de l'expérience à la fois dans la structure cérébrale, mais aussi dans les capacités cognitives. Elle devrait permettre de comprendre les mécanismes reliant connectivité synaptique et apprentissage, et encourager des études sur l'impact des agents stressants environnementaux sur le déclin cognitif lié au butinage.Learning capacities, and the structure of the brain centres supporting them, vary greatly between individuals, partly due to different life experiences. In honey bees, experience-dependent plasticity has been reported in brain centres involved in learning and memory: the mushroom bodies (MBs). The consequences of such plasticity on learning performances are still unknown. The aim of my thesis was to examine the relationships between experience, learning capacities and MB organization in honey bees. The age-related division of labour in honey bees gave me the opportunity to study experience-dependent plasticity both in young bees working inside the hive, and in older bees foraging outdoors. I first observed that bees exposed to a sensory-impoverished environment for the first days of adulthood had a higher number of synaptic boutons in the MBs, and a reduced performance in a MB-dependent learning task; reversal learning. This suggests the occurrence of experience-dependent synaptic pruning in the natural environment, which improves learning capacities. I observed similar effects of environmental enrichment when the bees started foraging. Foraging onset was accompanied by a decrease in the number of synaptic boutons in the MBs, as well as by an improvement in reversal learning performance. Prolonged foraging activity, however, had the opposite effects, especially when a stress applied to the colony induced bees to forage earlier. Therefore, I highlighted a negative relationship between the number of synaptic boutons in the MBs and performance in reversal learning. I then confirmed the negative impact of foraging activity on learning capacities using a different MB-dependent task; positive patterning. I revealed the involvement of the cholinergic signalling pathway in this experience-dependent cognitive decline. This thesis presents the first integrated analyses of experience-dependent plasticity in both brain structure and cognitive capacities in honey bees. It helps to understand the mechanisms linking synaptic connectivity to learning performances, and will encourage further studies on the role of environmental stressors in the reported cognitive decline in foragers

Hydroxynitrile Lyase-Catalyzed Enantioselective Conversion of Ketones into Cyanohydrins

In this thesis I have addressed several issues related to the HNL-catalyzed preparation of cyanohydrins. I first demonstrated in Chapter 2 that immobilized HNL as sol-gels and as commercially available Cross Linked Enzyme Aggregates (CLEA®) improved several features of the biocatalyst such as solvent stability, and substrate or product inhibition/deactivation. In particular, MeCLEA was remarkably stable towards the deleterious effect of organic solvent and the enzymatic reaction could be carried out in organic media. The CLEA immobilization strategy is nonetheless enzyme-dependent and I successfully developed the biocatalyst LuCLEA for optimum catalytic performances in organic media as described in Chapter 3. This enantioselective and recyclable biocatalyst appeared to be particularly effective for the preparation of 2-butanone cyanohydrin. In Chapter 4, I used benzaldehyde as a model substrate to develop multistep strategies towards cyanohydrin derivatives based on HNL-CLEA catalysis in organic solvents. The reaction could be carried out in one pot or with limited downstream processing/purification of the cyanohydrin intermediate. In the case of ketones such as acetophenone where unfavourable thermodynamics limit the practical conversion, all attempts to derivatize the cyanohydrin in situ in order to shift the equilibrium were not successful. Cyanohydrins from ketones can indeed be considered as tertiary alcohols which require relatively reactive reagents for derivatization. Under these conditions the biocatalyst was rendered inactive. Since no in situ derivatization method could de designed to enable complete conversion of unreactive ketones, kinetic resolution as a means to produce chiral cyanohydrin was explored in Chapter 5. I established enzymatic activity for a previously unreported ?,?-unsaturated ketone and showed that kinetic resolution was more suitable than the direct synthetic route for the preparation of the corresponding chiral cyanohydrin. As an extension of this work I also described the rearrangement of a similar ?,?-unsatuared cyanohydrin acetate into the corresponding tetronic acid derivative. Chapter 6 concludes this thesis with straightforward synthetic procedures towards racemic cyanohydrins from unreactive ketones in order to improve the overall cost efficiency of the kinetic resolution approach.Biocatalysis and Orgnanic ChemistryApplied Science