Observe, record, interpret: some examples of teaching sedimentology by distance learning including virtual graphic logs

In light of the COVID-19 pandemic, distance learning resources have become urgent. This paper provides distance learning examples that keep the sedimentary field class mantra ‘Observe, Record, Interpret’ at the forefront of the curriculum. These examples are intended to be a resource to other sedimentary geology educators. The approach taken here is based upon learning observation skills and recording sedimentary rocks with a progression from sedimentary lithologies, and basic properties like grain size, through sedimentary structures to graphic logs and facies analysis through experiential learning. Learning objectives for the module include synthesis of geologic data, integration with core concepts in geosciences, and development of coherent scientific interpretation of data. Outcrop photographs from the Cretaceous Woburn Sands that are used as part of a distance learning module in Sedimentology provide an opportunity for students to practice drawing a graphic log without having to venture into the field, effectively bringing the field into the classroom. Drawing a graphic log encourages observation and enables recording of sedimentary rocks in preparation for interpretation and facies analysis. This distance learning module has the added advantage of providing a mechanism to teach more inclusively to students with disabilities that prevent them from participating in traditional field experiences, thus promoting diversity and inclusion in geoscience

Ground-penetrating radar stratigraphy and dynamics of megaflood gravel dunes

Ground-penetrating radar was used to elucidate the stratigraphy of late Pleistocene gravel dunes in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia that formed when a lake emptied as a result of ice-dam failure. Survey-lines across dunes had a resolution of decimetres, with depth penetration of 20 m. The reflections identify bounding surfaces and radar facies. Two classes of unconformities are identified: (1) an erosional unconformity at the base of the dunes; (2) steeply inclined unconformities that truncate underlying inclined reflections and are downlapped by overlying inclined reflections within the dunes. Unconformities define six radar facies (RF): RF 1, basal subhorizontal discordant reflections; RF 2, poorly defined discordant reflections; RF 3, planar inclined reflections; RF 4, sigmoidal inclined reflections; RF 5, trough fills; RF 6, low-angle inclined reflections. The basal unconformity represents the flood-cut surface, across which the dunes migrated. The inclined unconformities may be interpreted in two ways: (1) erosional surfaces induced by unsteady flow within one flood, or (2) erosional surfaces developed by a series of floods reactivating dunes left stranded by previous floods. The evidence favours the latter model, which is consistent with the occurrence of several dune-forming events within the basin. The broader implications of the study are considered with respect to investigations of megaflood bedforms worldwide

Dust production by abrasion of aeolian basalt sands: analogue for Martian dust

Dust is nearly ubiquitous on Mars, covering much of the planet’s surface, having been redistributed by dust storms. Analysis of dust via landed instrumentation indicates a basaltic composition for its protolith; the same is interpreted for the dark dune sands encountered at rover field sites. In this paper, we used samples of aeolian sands derived from basaltic volcanoes in an experiment to simulate dust production from basalt dune sands within an abrasion chamber. In addition, we used samples from gypsum dunes because gypsum is found within dune fields on the northern plains of Mars. The results, expressed as weight % of sample reduced to dust, show a remarkably broad range over four orders of magnitude. Aeolian abrasion of basalt sands can produce similar amounts of dust, as is the case for some desert sands on Earth. Some plausible Mars analogue materials can produce large amounts of dust, suggesting that aeolian movement of basaltic sand, and volcanic sediments on the surface of Mars is a potential source of fine-grained sediment or dust

Evaluating the relative importance of northern African mineral dust sources using remote sensing

Northern African mineral dust provides the Amazon Basin with essential nutrients during boreal winter months, when the trajectory of the Saharan dust plume is towards South America. This process, however, is still poorly understood. There is little understanding where the dust is coming from, and thus what the concentration of nutrients in the dust is. This information is vital to assess the impact it will have on the Amazon. In order to further our understanding of the problem, this study analyses northern African dust sources of the boreal winter dust seasons between the years 2015-2017. It utilises high spatio-temporal resolution remote sensing data from SEVIRI, MODIS, VIIRS, and Sentinel-2 to identify dust sources, classify them according to a geomorphic dust source scheme, and quantify the relative importance of source regions by calculating the total dust mass they produce. Results indicate that paleolakes emit the most dust, with the Bodélé Depression as the single largest dust source region. However, alluvial deposits also produce a substantial amount of dust. During the boreal winter dust seasons of 2015-2017, ~36% of the total dust mass emitted from northern Africa was associated with alluvial deposits, yet this geomorphic category has been relatively understudied to date. Furthermore, sand deposits were found to produce relatively little dust, in contrast to the results of other recent studies

A late Holocene palaeoenvironmental ‘snapshot’ of the Angamma Delta, Lake Megachad at the end of the African Humid Period

During the African Humid Period (AHP) there was a large increase in the area of lakes and wetlands. Lake Megachad, one of several huge lakes, underwent dramatic fluctuations during the AHP prior to regression in the mid Holocene. However, the timing and nature of AHP termination has been disputed. We present evidence from sediments of the Angamma Delta, from the northern end of the palaeolake, for Lake Megachad lake-level fluctuations at the end of the AHP. Delta slope deposits were deposited around 7000 cal BP at the height of the AHP. Overlying bioclastic sediments, from 4300 to 4800 cal BP at an elevation of 285–290 m, lie below the palaeolake highstand (339 m) but close to the elevation of the Bahr el Ghazal sill, which divided the lake's two sub-basins. Ostracod δ18O values indicate that the waters of the northern sub-basin were evaporated to levels similar to modern Lake Chad. Palaeoecological evidence suggests that the lake was perennial and evaporative enrichment is attributed to restricted circulation of lake waters as the sill emerged. The age and elevation of the bioclastic sediment, coupled with published lake level reconstructions, suggest a complex lake-level history with a major regression at the end of the AHP, followed by a short lived, lake level rise and then a further regression. This new evidence for changes in lake level provides support for other geological records and some modelling experiments that suggest rapid fluctuations in hydroclimate at the end of the AHP

Solid-phase phosphorus speciation in Saharan Bodélé depression dusts and source sediments

Phosphorus (P) is one of the most important limiting nutrients for the growth of oceanic phytoplankton and terrestrial ecosystems, which in turn contributes to CO2 sequestration. The solid-phase speciation of P will influence its solubility and hence its availability to such ecosystems. This study reports on the results of X-ray diffraction, electron microprobe chemical analysis and X-ray mapping, chemical extractions and X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy analysis carried out to determine the solid-phase speciation of P in dusts and their source sediments from the Saharan Bodélé Depression, the world’s largest single source of dust. Chemical extraction data suggest that the Bodélé dusts contain 28 to 60% (mean 49%) P sorbed to, or co-precipitated with Fe (hydr)oxides, < 10% organic P, 21-50% (mean 32%) detrital apatite P, and 10-22% (mean 15%) authigenic-biogenic apatite P. This is confirmed by the other analyses, which also suggest that the authigenic-biogenic apatite P is likely fish bone and scale, and that this might form a larger proportion of the apatite pool (33 +/− 22%) than given by the extraction data. This is the first-ever report of fish material in aeolian dust, and it is significant because P derived from fish bone and scale is relatively soluble and is often used as a soil fertilizer. Therefore, the fish-P will likely be the most readily form of Bodélé P consumed during soil weathering and atmospheric processing, but given time and acid dissolution, the detrital apatite, Fe-P and organic-P will also be made available. The Bodélé dust input of P to global ecosystems will only have a limited life, however, because its major source materials, diatomite in the Bodélé Depression, undergo persistent deflation and have a finite thickness

Morphology, Development, and Sediment Dynamics of Elongating Linear Dunes on Mars

Linear dunes occur on planetary surfaces, including Earth, Mars, and Titan, yet their dynamics are poorly understood. Recent studies of terrestrial linear dunes suggest they migrate by elongation only in supply limited environments. Here, we investigate elongating linear dunes in the Hellespontus Montes region of Mars which are morphologically similar to terrestrial systems. Multi‐temporal, high‐resolution orbital images show these linear dunes migrate by elongation only and that the fixed sediment source of the dunes probably restricts any lateral migration. Some linear dunes maintain their along length volume and elongate at rates comparable to adjacent barchans, whereas those which decrease in volume show no elongation, suggesting they are near steady state, matching morphometric predictions. Limited sediment supply may restrict Martian linear dunes to several kilometers, significantly shorter than many terrestrial linear dunes. Our results demonstrate the close similarities in dune dynamics across the two planetary surfaces

Three North African dust source areas and their geochemical fingerprint

North Africa produces more than half of the world’s atmospheric dust load. Once entrained 24 into the atmosphere, this dust poses a human health hazard locally. It also modifies the 25 radiative budget regionally, and supplies nutrients that fuel primary productivity across the 26 North Atlantic Ocean and as far afield as the Amazonian Basin. Dust accumulation in deep 27 sea and lacustrine sediments also provides a means to study changes in palaeoclimate, 28 particularly those associated with rainfall climate change. Systematic analysis of satellite 29 imagery has greatly improved our understanding of the trajectories of long-range North 30 African dust plumes, but our knowledge of the dust-producing source regions and our ability 31 to fingerprint their contribution to these export routes is surprisingly limited. Here we 32 report new radiogenic isotope (Sr and Nd) data for sediment samples from known dust33 producing substrates (dried river and lakes beds), integrate them with published isotope 34 data and weight them for dust source activation. We define three isotopically distinct 35 preferential dust source areas (PSAs): a Western, a Central and an Eastern North African 36 PSA. More data are needed, particularly from the Western PSA, but our results show a 37 change in PSA dust source composition to more radiogenic Nd- and less radiogenic Sr38 isotope values from west to east, in line with the overall decreasing age of the underlying 39 bedrock. Our data reveal extreme isotopic heterogeneity within the Chadian region of the 40 Central PSA, including an extremely distinctive geochemical fingerprint feeding the Bodélé 41 Depression, the most active dust source on Earth. Our new analysis significantly improves 42 the reliability by which windblown dust deposits can be geochemically fingerprinted to their 43 distant source regions

Iron oxide minerals in dust-source sediments from the Bodélé Depression, Chad: Implications for radiative properties and Fe bioavailability of dust plumes from the Sahara

Atmospheric mineral dust can influence climate and biogeochemical cycles. An important component of mineral dust is ferric oxide minerals (hematite and goethite) which have been shown to influence strongly the optical properties of dust plumes and thus affect the radiative forcing of global dust. Here we report on the iron mineralogy of dust-source samples from the Bodélé Depression (Chad, north-central Africa), which is estimated to be Earth’s most prolific dust producer and may be a key contributor to the global radiative budget of the atmosphere as well as to long-range nutrient transport to the Amazon Basin. By using a combination of magnetic property measurements, Mössbauer spectroscopy, reflectance spectroscopy, chemical analysis, and scanning electron microscopy, we document the abundance and relative amounts of goethite, hematite, and magnetite in dust-source samples from the Bodélé Depression. The partition between hematite and goethite is important to know to improve models for the radiative effects of ferric oxide minerals in mineral dust aerosols. The combination of methods shows (1) the dominance of goethite over hematite in the source sediments, (2) the abundance and occurrences of their nanosize components, and (3) the ubiquity of magnetite, albeit in small amounts. Dominant goethite and subordinate hematite together compose about 2% of yellow-reddish dust-source sediments from the Bodélé Depression and contribute strongly to diminution of reflectance in bulk samples. These observations imply that dust plumes from the Bodélé Depression that are derived from goethite-dominated sediments strongly absorb solar radiation. The presence of ubiquitous magnetite (0.002-0.57 wt. %) is also noteworthy for its potentially higher solubility relative to ferric oxide and for its small sizes, including PM<0.1m. For all examined samples, the average iron apportionment is estimated at about 33% in ferric oxide minerals, 1.4 % in magnetite, and 65% in ferric silicates. Structural iron in clay minerals may account for much of the iron in the ferric silicates. We estimate that the mean ferric oxides flux exported from the Bodélé Depression is 0.9 Tg/yr with greater than 50% exported as ferric oxide nanoparticles (<0.1m). The high surface-to-volume ratios of ferric oxide nanoparticles once entrained into dust plumes may facilitate increased atmospheric chemical and physical processing and affect iron solubility and bioavailability to marine and terrestrial ecosystems

Genomic evolution shapes prostate cancer disease type

H.R.F. was supported by a Cancer Research UK Programme Grant to Simon Tavaré (C14303/A17197), as, partially, was A.G.L. A.G.L. acknowledges the support of the University of St Andrews. A.G.L. and J.H.R.F. also acknowledge the support of the Cambridge Cancer Research Fund.The development of cancer is an evolutionary process involving the sequential acquisition of genetic alterations that disrupt normal biological processes, enabling tumor cells to rapidly proliferate and eventually invade and metastasize to other tissues. We investigated the genomic evolution of prostate cancer through the application of three separate classification methods, each designed to investigate a different aspect of tumor evolution. Integrating the results revealed the existence of two distinct types of prostate cancer that arise from divergent evolutionary trajectories, designated as the Canonical and Aalternative evolutionary disease types. We therefore propose the evotype model for prostate cancer evolution wherein Alternative-evotype tumors diverge from those of the Canonical-evotype through the stochastic accumulation of genetic alterations associated with disruptions to androgen receptor DNA binding. Our model unifies many previous molecular observations, providing a powerful new framework to investigate prostate cancer disease progression.Peer reviewe