The Supreme Court and the constitutional rights of students : the Burger years, 1969-1986

This study has as its purpose a review and analysis of United States Supreme Court decisions rendered by the Burger Court which address the constitutional rights of American school students. Five major issues are addressed: (1) right to due process, (2) right to free speech, (3) right to religious freedom, (4) right to be protected from illegal searches and seizures, and (5) the right to receive information and ideas

Effect of brain-stem lesions on conditioned responses of cats

The possibility was explored that certain central brain-stem areas might be critical for the performance of conditioned reflexes. In 6 cats, large bilateral electrolytic lesions were placed in the medial diencephalon or mesencephalon and subsequently defined by histology. A tone served as conditional stimulus and foot-shock as unconditional stimulus. The EEG, respiration, and the EMG of the conditioned limb were recorded. Persistent low voltage, fast activity consistently reappeared in the EEG in 7 to 10 days and was seen even after destruction of over 100 mm3 of the mesencephalon, including the reticular formation. Conditioned reflexes usually appeared only when such faster EEG patterns were present. Conditioned reflexes and discrimination between tones could occur, however, during relatively high voltage, slow activity in the cortical areas sampled. Extensive lesions essentially transecting the ascending reticular system or destroying the posterior hypothalamus did not preclude conditioning. In contrast, one animal could not be retrained when lesions were in the mamillary area. It is concluded that the medial mesencephalic systems are not essential for this type of conditioning and that, if any essential system does exist, it is located in the region of the mamillary bodies, field H1 of Forel, center median, and the habenulopeduncular tract.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/32452/1/0000535.pd

Electrocortical reactions associated with conditioned flexion reflexes

Cats with permanently implanted cortical electrodes were drugged with bulbocapnine and the EEG recorded continuously during the formation of flexion conditioned reflexes (CR). The drug has no readily detectable effect on rate of conditioning and usually produces such slow EEG patterns that electrocortical arousal reactions are well demarcated. Arousal reactions to a tonal conditional stimulus (CS) given alone soon cease to occur, but become more frequent as the CS is paired with an unavoidable shock to the leg 25-50 times a day over several days. In all cases the EEG reactions attain a high level of consistency before the first respiratory or flexion CRs appear, almost invariably accompany them, and can survive for some time after these somatic CRs are fully extinguished. There is a tendency, however, for the EEG arousal response to diminish with overtraining despite continuation of somatic CRs and shock reinforcement, and in certain instances somatic CRs can occur during relatively slow electrocortical activity. There was no evidence that the somatic CRs correlated with any localization of electrocortical reactions or alterations of cortical evoked potentials.Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/32489/1/0000575.pd

Knowledge practices in design: The role of visual representations as 'epistemic objects'

We use a detailed study of the knowledge work around visual representations to draw attention to the multidimensional nature of `objects'. Objects are variously described in the literatures as relatively stable or in flux; as abstract or concrete; and as used within or across practices. We clarify these dimensions, drawing on and extending the literature on boundary objects, and connecting it with work on epistemic and technical objects. In particular, we highlight the epistemic role of objects, using our observations of knowledge work on an architectural design project to show how, in this setting, visual representations are characterized by a `lack' or incompleteness that precipitates unfolding. The conceptual design of a building involves a wide range of technical, social and aesthetic forms of knowledge that need to be developed and aligned. We explore how visual representations are used, and how these are meaningful to different stakeholders, eliciting their distinct contributions. As the project evolves and the drawings change, new issues and needs for knowledge work arise. These objects have an `unfolding ontology' and are constantly in flux, rather than fully formed. We discuss the implications for wider understandings of objects in organizations and for how knowledge work is achieved in practice

Arf1/COPI machinery acts directly on lipid droplets and enables their connection to the ER for protein targeting.

Lipid droplets (LDs) are ubiquitous organelles that store neutral lipids, such as triacylglycerol (TG), as reservoirs of metabolic energy and membrane precursors. The Arf1/COPI protein machinery, known for its role in vesicle trafficking, regulates LD morphology, targeting of specific proteins to LDs and lipolysis through unclear mechanisms. Recent evidence shows that Arf1/COPI can bud nano-LDs (∼60 nm diameter) from phospholipid-covered oil/water interfaces in vitro. We show that Arf1/COPI proteins localize to cellular LDs, are sufficient to bud nano-LDs from cellular LDs, and are required for targeting specific TG-synthesis enzymes to LD surfaces. Cells lacking Arf1/COPI function have increased amounts of phospholipids on LDs, resulting in decreased LD surface tension and impairment to form bridges to the ER. Our findings uncover a function for Arf1/COPI proteins at LDs and suggest a model in which Arf1/COPI machinery acts to control ER-LD connections for localization of key enzymes of TG storage and catabolism. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01607.001

Delivery of Dark Material to Vesta via Carbonaceous Chondritic Impacts

NASA's Dawn spacecraft observations of asteroid (4) Vesta reveal a surface with the highest albedo and color variation of any asteroid we have observed so far. Terrains rich in low albedo dark material (DM) have been identified using Dawn Framing Camera (FC) 0.75 {\mu}m filter images in several geologic settings: associated with impact craters (in the ejecta blanket material and/or on the crater walls and rims); as flow-like deposits or rays commonly associated with topographic highs; and as dark spots (likely secondary impacts) nearby impact craters. This DM could be a relic of ancient volcanic activity or exogenic in origin. We report that the majority of the spectra of DM are similar to carbonaceous chondrite meteorites mixed with materials indigenous to Vesta. Using high-resolution seven color images we compared DM color properties (albedo, band depth) with laboratory measurements of possible analog materials. Band depth and albedo of DM are identical to those of carbonaceous chondrite xenolith-rich howardite Mt. Pratt (PRA) 04401. Laboratory mixtures of Murchison CM2 carbonaceous chondrite and basaltic eucrite Millbillillie also show band depth and albedo affinity to DM. Modeling of carbonaceous chondrite abundance in DM (1-6 vol%) is consistent with howardite meteorites. We find no evidence for large-scale volcanism (exposed dikes/pyroclastic falls) as the source of DM. Our modeling efforts using impact crater scaling laws and numerical models of ejecta reaccretion suggest the delivery and emplacement of this DM on Vesta during the formation of the ~400 km Veneneia basin by a low-velocity (<2 km/sec) carbonaceous impactor. This discovery is important because it strengthens the long-held idea that primitive bodies are the source of carbon and probably volatiles in the early Solar System.Comment: Icarus (Accepted) Pages: 58 Figures: 15 Tables:

Impact of Genotyping of Mycobacterium tuberculosis on Public Health Practice in Massachusetts

Massachusetts was one of seven sentinel surveillance sites in the National Tuberculosis Genotyping and Surveillance Network. From 1996 through 2000, isolates from new patients with tuberculosis (TB) underwent genotyping. We describe the impact that genotyping had on public health practice in Massachusetts and some limitations of the technique. Through genotyping, we explored the dynamics of TB outbreaks, investigated laboratory cross-contamination, and identified Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains, transmission sites, and accurate epidemiologic links. Genotyping should be used with epidemiologic follow-up to identify how resources can best be allocated to investigate genotypic findings

Natural history of perinatal and infantile hypophosphatasia: A retrospective study

Objective: To report clinical characteristics and medical history data obtained retrospectively for a large cohort of pediatric patients with perinatal and infantile hypophosphatasia. Study design: Medical records from academic medical centers known to diagnose and/or treat hypophosphatasia were reviewed. Patients born between 1970 and 2011 with hypophosphatasia and any of the following signs/symptoms at age &lt;6 months were eligible: vitamin B6–dependent seizures, respiratory compromise, or rachitic chest deformity (NCT01419028). Patient demographics and characteristics, respiratory support requirements, invasive ventilator–free survival, and further complications of hypophosphatasia were followed for up to the first 5 years of life. Results: Forty-eight patients represented 12 study sites in 7 countries; 13 patients were alive, and 35 were dead (including 1 stillborn). Chest deformity, respiratory distress, respiratory failure (as conditioned by the eligibility criteria), failure to thrive, and elevated calcium levels were present in &gt;70% of patients between birth and age 5 years. Vitamin B6–dependent seizures and respiratory distress and failure were associated significantly (P &lt;.05)with the risk of early death. Serum alkaline phosphatase activity in all 41 patients tested (mean [SD]: 18.1 [15.4]U/L)was below the mean lower limit of normal of the reference ranges of the various laboratories (88.2 U/L). Among the 45 patients with relevant data, 29 had received respiratory support, of whom 26 had died at the time of data collection. The likelihood of invasive ventilator–free survival for this cohort decreased to 63% at 3 months, 54% at 6 months, 31% at 12 months, and 25% at 5 years. Conclusions: Patients with perinatal or infantile hypophosphatasia and vitamin B6–dependent seizures, with or without significant respiratory distress or chest deformities, have high morbidity and mortality in the first 5 years of life. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01419028

Different paths to the modern state in Europe: the interaction between domestic political economy and interstate competition

Theoretical work on state formation and capacity has focused mostly on early modern Europe and on the experience of western European states during this period. While a number of European states monopolized domestic tax collection and achieved gains in state capacity during the early modern era, for others revenues stagnated or even declined, and these variations motivated alternative hypotheses for determinants of fiscal and state capacity. In this study we test the basic hypotheses in the existing literature making use of the large date set we have compiled for all of the leading states across the continent. We find strong empirical support for two prevailing threads in the literature, arguing respectively that interstate wars and changes in economic structure towards an urbanized economy had positive fiscal impact. Regarding the main point of contention in the theoretical literature, whether it was representative or authoritarian political regimes that facilitated the gains in fiscal capacity, we do not find conclusive evidence that one performed better than the other. Instead, the empirical evidence we have gathered lends supports to the hypothesis that when under pressure of war, the fiscal performance of representative regimes was better in the more urbanized-commercial economies and the fiscal performance of authoritarian regimes was better in rural-agrarian economie