AbeTx1 is a novel sea anemone toxin with a dual mechanism of action on Shaker-type K+ channels activation

Voltage-gated potassium (KV) channels regulate diverse physiological processes and are an important target for developing novel therapeutic approaches. Sea anemone (Cnidaria, Anthozoa) venoms comprise a highly complex mixture of peptide toxins with diverse and selective pharmacology on KV channels. From the nematocysts of the sea anemone Actinia bermudensis, a peptide that we named AbeTx1 was purified and functionally characterized on 12 different subtypes of KV channels (KV1.1–KV1.6; KV2.1; KV3.1; KV4.2; KV4.3; KV11.1; and, Shaker IR), and three voltage-gated sodium channel isoforms (NaV1.2, NaV1.4, and BgNaV). AbeTx1 was selective for Shaker-related K+ channels and is capable of inhibiting K+ currents, not only by blocking the K+ current of KV1.2 subtype, but by altering the energetics of activation of KV1.1 and KV1.6. Moreover, experiments using six synthetic alanine point-mutated analogs further showed that a ring of basic amino acids acts as a multipoint interaction for the binding of the toxin to the channel. The AbeTx1 primary sequence is composed of 17 amino acids with a high proportion of lysines and arginines, including two disulfide bridges (Cys1–Cys4 and Cys2–Cys3), and it is devoid of aromatic or aliphatic amino acids. Secondary structure analysis reveals that AbeTx1 has a highly flexible, random-coil-like conformation, but with a tendency of structuring in the beta sheet. Its overall structure is similar to open-ended cyclic peptides found on the scorpion κ-KTx toxins family, cone snail venoms, and antimicrobial peptides

Regulation of Na(+) channel inactivation by the DIII and DIV voltage-sensing domains.

Functional eukaryotic voltage-gated Na(+) (NaV) channels comprise four domains (DI-DIV), each containing six membrane-spanning segments (S1-S6). Voltage sensing is accomplished by the first four membrane-spanning segments (S1-S4), which together form a voltage-sensing domain (VSD). A critical NaV channel gating process, inactivation, has previously been linked to activation of the VSDs in DIII and DIV. Here, we probe this interaction by using voltage-clamp fluorometry to observe VSD kinetics in the presence of mutations at locations that have been shown to impair NaV channel inactivation. These locations include the DIII-DIV linker, the DIII S4-S5 linker, and the DIV S4-S5 linker. Our results show that, within the 10-ms timeframe of fast inactivation, the DIV-VSD is the primary regulator of inactivation. However, after longer 100-ms pulses, the DIII-DIV linker slows DIII-VSD deactivation, and the rate of DIII deactivation correlates strongly with the rate of recovery from inactivation. Our results imply that, over the course of an action potential, DIV-VSDs regulate the onset of fast inactivation while DIII-VSDs determine its recovery

Mechanisms of noncovalent β subunit regulation of NaV channel gating

Voltage-gated Na(+) (NaV) channels comprise a macromolecular complex whose components tailor channel function. Key components are the non-covalently bound β1 and β3 subunits that regulate channel gating, expression, and pharmacology. Here, we probe the molecular basis of this regulation by applying voltage clamp fluorometry to measure how the β subunits affect the conformational dynamics of the cardiac NaV channel (NaV1.5) voltage-sensing domains (VSDs). The pore-forming NaV1.5 α subunit contains four domains (DI-DIV), each with a VSD. Our results show that β1 regulates NaV1.5 by modulating the DIV-VSD, whereas β3 alters channel kinetics mainly through DIII-VSD interaction. Introduction of a quenching tryptophan into the extracellular region of the β3 transmembrane segment inverted the DIII-VSD fluorescence. Additionally, a fluorophore tethered to β3 at the same position produced voltage-dependent fluorescence dynamics strongly resembling those of the DIII-VSD. Together, these results provide compelling evidence that β3 binds proximally to the DIII-VSD. Molecular-level differences in β1 and β3 interaction with the α subunit lead to distinct activation and inactivation recovery kinetics, significantly affecting NaV channel regulation of cell excitability

Electrical effects of free fatty acids in planar lipid bilayers.

Ácidos graxos livres (FFA) são importantes mediadores do transporte de prótons através de membranas. Porém, pouco se sabe sobre a influência estrutural tanto dos FFA como do ambiente lipídico na translocação de prótons através de membranas. Tanto os efeitos do comprimento da cadeia e número de insaturações dos FFA como a composição da membrana foram analisados por medidas elétricas em bicamadas lipídicas planas. Condutância a prótons (GH+) e condutância de vazamento (Gleak) foram calculadas a partir de medidas de voltagem em circuito aberto e de corrente de curto-circuito obtidas através de um eletrômetro ou um amplificador de patch-clamp (modo de voltage-clamp). Nossos resultados mostram que FFA com cis-insaturações causam um efeito mais pronunciado no transporte de próton quando comparados com FFA saturados ou trans-insaturação. Colesterol e cardiolipina diminuem Gleak de membranas. Cardiolipina também diminui GH+. Esses efeitos indicam uma dupla modulação do transporte de prótons: pelo mecanismo de flip-flop dos FFA e por uma via difusional simples adicional.Free fatty acids (FFA) are important mediatiors of proton transport across membranes. However, little is known about the structural influence of both FFA and the membrane environment have in proton translocation across phospholipid membranes and by which means this influence is brought about. Both the effects of FFA chain length and insaturation and membrane composition on proton transport have been addressed in this study by electrical measurements in planar lipid bilayers. Proton conductance (GH+) and leak conductance (Gleak) were calculated from open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current measurements obtained using either an electrometer or a patch-clamp amplifier (voltage-clamp mode). We found that cis-unsaturated FFA caused a more pronounced effect on proton transport as compared to saturated or trans-unsaturated FFA. Cholesterol and cardiolipin decreased Gleak. Cardiolipin also decreased GH+. These effects indicate a dual modulation of protein-independent proton transport by FFA through flip-flop and by an additional simple diffusional pathway