Human impact on the vegetation of the western Ljubljansko barje in late prehistory (ca. 1000–50 cal. BC). Case study: Vrhnika (Dolge njive)

V članku sta predstavljena razvoj vegetacije in človekov vpliv na okolje na območju današnjega mesta Vrhnika (rimski Navport) v pozni prazgodovini (1. tisočletje pr. n. št.). Raziskava temelji na rezultatih pelodne analize aluvialnega sedimenta, ki se je odlagal na desnem bregu Ljubljanice (lokacija Dolge njive) pred drugo polovico prvega stoletja pr. n. št., ko je bila postavljena rimska naselbina Dolge njive. Pelodni zapis kaže, da je bila pokrajina okrog najdišča v prvem tisočletju pr. n. št. močvirna, medtem ko je mešani gozd (bukev, hrast, jelka in navadni gaber) poraščal bližnja bolj suha območja. Pokrajina je bila le deloma pogozdena; vidni so močni sledovi kultivacije žit in paše, kar lahko povežemo z gospodarskimi aktivnostmi prebivalcev prazgodovinskih (halštatskih in latenskih) naselbin v bližini. Izsekavanje gozda je še pred nastankom rimske naselbine na Dolgih njivah verjetno postalo intenzivnejše. Zaradi suhih hidroloških razmer v arheoloških kulturnih plasteh rekonstrukcija razvoja vegetacije v času rimske naselbine ni bila mogoča.This article investigates the vegetation composition and human impact on the environment in the vicinity of the modern town of Vrhnika (Roman Nauportus) in late prehistory (ca. 1000–50 cal. BC). The research is based on pollen analysis of alluvial sediment, which was deposited on the right bank of the Ljubljanica River before the construction of the Dolge njive Roman settlement in the second half of the 1st century BC. The pollen record suggests that in the 1st millennium cal. BC the landscape around the study site was marshy, and that mixed woodland (beech, oak, fir and hornbeam) was growing on drier land. The landscape was partly open, with strong traces of cereal cultivation and grazing, which can be associated with the economic activities of prehistoric, Early and Late Iron Age populations living in the area. The forest clearance presumably intensified before the establishment of the Roman settlement at Dolge njive. Due to dry hydrological conditions in the archaeological cultural layers, it is not possible to reconstruct the vegetation composition at the time of the Roman settlement

Okoljska arheologija in paleoekologija

[Environmental Archaeology and Palaeoecology:Palynology, Archaeobotany and Archaeozoology]Plant and animal remains, which are found on archaeological sites and in lake/marsh sediments, are a good source of information about past economy, environment, food procurement, and the adaptation of people to changeable environmental conditions in various archaeological time periods. However, all these data need to be collected and interpreted. With the first manual presenting palynology, archaeobotany and archaeozoology fields of research in Slovenian language, this task should be more easily achievable.Rastlinski in živalski ostanki, ki jih najdemo na arheoloških najdiščih ter v močvirskih in jezerskih sedimentih, so dober vir podatkov o načinu življenja, gospodarstvu, prehranskih navadah, nekdanjem okolju in prilagoditvi človeka nanj v različnih obdobjih. Vendar pa je treba znati te podatke pravilno zbrati in »prebrati«. S prvo celovito predstavitvijo področja delovanja palinologije, arheobotanike in arheozoologije v slovenskem jeziku bo to odslej lažje.Knjiga je razdeljena na dva dela. Prvi, splošni del je posvečen teoretični predstavitvi palinologije, arheobotanike in arheozoologije. Orisu osnovnih vrst rastlinskih in živalskih najdb ter razmer, v kakršnih se odlagajo in ohranjajo v sedimentu, sledi predstavitev poglavitnih raziskovalnih metod in najpomembnejših interpretativnih okvirjev. V drugem delu je na kratko povzetih več primerov uporabe okoljske arheologije pri obravnavi različnih arheološko pomembnih problematik, s poudarkom na pomenu primerne izbire osnovnih metod dela

Palaeoenvironmental and Archaeological Implications of a Sediment Core from Polje Čepić, Istria, Croatia

Palaeoenvironmental and archaeological records provide an invaluable framework for land and water management in karstic areas of the Mediterranean realm. We present the results from analyses carried out on three segments of a sediment core extracted in 2004 from a portion of Polje Čepić (Istria, Croatia), a tectono-karstic depression covered in water until artificial drainage took place in 1932. We used bulk sediment analyses, pollen analysis and radiocarbon dating to assess the possible contribution of people to the progressive siltation of the lake, and compared our results with recent archaeological discoveries made on the polje margins. The dating of the sequence points to the presence of a predominantly wet landscape at the coring location since at least 7000 years cal BP. The coincidence of cereal type pollen grains with several open-air archaeological sites indicates that small scale agricultural practices possibly developed around the polje in Neolithic times, ca 6500 years cal BP. Concentrations of charcoal in the sediment core at this time suggest the use of fire clearance as part of the agricultural practice. During the Bronze and Iron Ages, the possible intensification of forest clearance and agricultural practices is indicated by: (1) an increase in the number and type of archaeological sites found around the polje; (2) a more open plant landscape in the upper part of the analysed sequence; and (3) a three-fold increase in the sedimentation rate, possibly starting as early as 4000 years cal BP. Wetter climate conditions and higher erosion of the surrounding slopes probably led to the progressive siltation of the lake. Finally, in 1932 the lake was artificially drained and Istria lost its largest natural basin of fresh water

Palaeoecological evidence for human impact at the forest line at Klek in the Julian Alps

Planina Klek sodi med najstarejša pašna področja na Pokljuki, v regiji pa so bila najdena tudi rimska, poznoantična in zgodnjesrednjeveška arheološka najdišča. V tem članku predstavljamo rezultate palinoloških in pedoloških raziskav, ki kažejo na razmeroma zgoden vpliv človeka na okolje alpskih habitatov, kar je – morda že v bronasti dobi – povzročilo erozijo tal in spremembo v sestavi vegetacije. Pelod, značilen za travnike, pašnike in ruderalna območja se pojavi že po pribl. 4000 cal. BC, prva pelodna zrna žitaric pa nekoliko kasneje, verjetno v pozni prazgodovini, pred pribl. 500 cal. BC (točno starost je težko določiti).Klek is one of the oldest alpine grazing areas on the Pokljuka Plateau in Slovenia, with archaeological sites dating to the Roman, Late Antiquity and Early Medieval periods. The results of palynological and pedological research presented in this paper suggest that human impact on the alpine habitats started relatively early (possibly as early as the Bronze Age), which led to soil erosion and changes in the vegetation composition. Pollen taxa characteristic for meadows, pastures and ruderal areas occur after ca. 4000 cal. BC, whereas the exact age of the first cereal type pollen grains is uncertain (late prehistory, earlier than ca. 500 cal. BC)

Človekov vpliv na okolje v prazgodovini: primer z obrežja Ljubljanice pri Špici (Ljubljana)

This paper presents the results of multi-proxy palaeo-ecological research (luminescence and radiocarbon dating, grain size measurement, loss-on-ignition, pollen, microcharcoal and plant macrofossil analysis), with the aim of reconstructing palaeo-environmental conditions and the impact of prehistoric people on the vegetation in Ljubljana (central Slovenia). The results of luminescence dating and pollen analysis suggest that the Late Copper Age (ca. 2500 cal. BC) archaeological settlement at Špica, which is located on the embankment of the Ljubljanica River, was built directly on silty sediment, which was deposited during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ca. 20 ka). Late glacial and early/middle Holocene sediment, which is missing, was presumably removed by fluvial processes. Therefore, only environmental conditions in the late prehistory after ca. 2500 cal. BC were reconstructed. The results of palynological research suggest that mixed forests with beech, fir, oak, and hornbeam were growing near the Špica settlement. Human impact on the environment was moderate, with weak traces of agricultural activities. After the abandonment of the settlement, the traces of human impact on the environment became more apparent, especially in the Iron Age, when the pollen of plants growing on (abandoned) fields and ruderal ground (cereals, goosefoot, mugwort) and grazing indicators (ribwort plantain) increases. Fir, which is sensitive to grazing and fire, declines. A major clearance of beech forest is dated in the Early Roman Age, most probably in mid-1st century BC (ca. 162 cal. BC–AD 52). These changes of vegetation can be associated with prehistoric and Roman archaeological sites of Tribuna and Prule, which is in the vicinity of Špica.V članku so predstavljeni rezultati paleoekoloških multidisciplinarnih raziskav, s pomočjo katerih smo rekonstruirali nekdanje okoljske razmere in vpliv prazgodovinskih prebivalcev Ljubljane na takratno vegetacijo. Rezultati luminiscenčnega datiranja in pelodne analize kažejo, da je bila poznoeneolitska (pribl. 2500 cal. BC) naselbina na obrežju Ljubljanice na Špici postavljena neposredno na meljast sediment, ki se je odlagal med viškom zadnje poledenitve pred približno 20.000 leti. Poznoglacialni in zgodnje-/srednjeholocenski sediment, ki manjka, je verjetno odnesla voda, zato lahko rekonstruiramo le prazgodovinske okoljske razmere od sredine 3. tisočletja pr. n. št. naprej. Na podlagi rezultatov palinološke raziskave lahko sklepamo, da so v bližini arheološke naselbine na Špici uspevali mešani gozdovi, v katerih so prevladovali bukev, jelka, hrast in navadni gaber. Človekov vpliv je bil zmeren, zaznamo lahko šibke sledove poljedelskih aktivnosti. Po opustitvi naselbine na Špici sledovi človekovega vpliva na okolje postanejo intenzivnejši, še zlasti v železni dobi, ko naraste delež peloda rastlin, značilnih za (opuščena) polja in ruderalna tla (žita, metlikovke, pelin) ter pašnike (ozkolistni trpotec). Delež jelke, ki je občutljiva za pašo in požiganje gozda, upade. Večje izsekavanje bukovega gozda je datirano v zgodnjerimsko obdobje, najverjetneje v sredino 1. st. pr. n. št. (162 pr. n. št.–52 n. št.). Opisane spremembe vegetacije lahko povežemo s prazgodovinskimi in rimskodobnimi arheološkimi najdišči na Tribuni in Prulah, v neposredni bližini Špice

Fire hazard modulation by long-term dynamics in land cover and dominant forest type in eastern and central Europe

Wildfire occurrence is influenced by climate, vegetation and human activities. A key challenge for understanding the risk of fires is quantifying the mediating effect of vegetation on fire regimes. Here, we explore the relative importance of Holocene land cover, land use, dominant functional forest type, and climate dynamics on biomass burning in temperate and boreo-nemoral regions of central and eastern Europe over the past 12 kyr. We used an extensive data set of Holocene pollen and sedimentary charcoal records, in combination with climate simulations and statistical modelling. Biomass burning was highest during the early Holocene and lowest during the mid-Holocene in all three ecoregions (Atlantic, continental and boreo-nemoral) but was more spatially variable over the past 3–4 kyr. Although climate explained a significant variance in biomass burning during the early Holocene, tree cover was consistently the highest predictor of past biomass burning over the past 8 kyr. In temperate forests, biomass burning was high at ~ 45% tree cover and decreased to a minimum at between 60% and 70% tree cover. In needleleaf-dominated forests, biomass burning was highest at ~60 %–65%tree cover and steeply declined at > 65% tree cover. Biomass burning also increased when arable lands and grasslands reached ~15 %–20 %, although this relationship was variable depending on land use practice via ignition sources, fuel type and quantities. Higher tree cover reduced the amount of solar radiation reaching the forest floor and could provide moister, more wind-protected microclimates underneath canopies, thereby decreasing fuel flammability. Tree cover at which biomass burning increased appears to be driven by warmer and drier summer conditions during the early Holocene and by increasing human influence on land cover during the late Holocene. We suggest that longterm fire hazard may be effectively reduced through land cover management, given that land cover has controlled fire regimes under the dynamic climates of the Holocene

Paleookolje v Sloveniji in severnemu delu hrvaške Istrev pozni prazgodovini

In the late prehistory, climatic fluctuations and human activityassociated with transition to farming and metallurgy triggeredsignificant changes in vegetation and in the palaeoenvironment.However, the reasons for these vegetation changes and mech-anisms,  which  led  to  the  formation  of  present-day  culturallandscape are still poorly understood. This paper presents theresults of pollen analysis at three palaeoecological sites, locat-ed in four different phytogeographic regions of Slovenia andnorthern Istria. The results indicate that, while the landscapein late prehistory became increasingly open due to forest clearanceand burning, the biodiversity also increased. Changes of for-est composition also occurred, and the increase in fir pollenmight be associated with increased precipitation and possiblyless intensive forest pastureUveljavitev poljedelsko-živinorejskega gospodarstva in pre-hod na metalurgijo v pozni prazgodovini sta, poleg klimatskihsprememb, močno vplivala na razvoj nekdanjega okolja. Kljubjasno  vidnim  spremembam  paleookolja  pa  so  vzroki  za  spre-membe vegetacije in nastanek današnje kulturne krajine še nejasni.V članku predstavljeni rezultati palinološke analize treh pale-oekoloških  najdišč,  ki  so  locirana  v  različnih  fitogeografskihregijah Slovenije in severne Istre, kažejo, da je zaradi sekanjain  požiganja  gozda  pokrajina  v  pozni  prazgodovini  postajalavse bolj odprta in raznolika, pojavile pa so se tudi spremembev sestavi gozda. Porast jelke morda lahko povežemo z vlažnejšoklimo in manj intenzivno gozdno paš

The Holocene vegetation dynamics and the formation of Neolithic and present-day Slovenian landscape

This paper presents the results of palaeoecological research to investigate the Holocene vegetation development of the Slovenian landscape and the impact of the first farmers upon it. Four study sites were selected and at each site a complete Holocene sedimentary sequence was analysed by using the following techniques: loss-on-ignition, geochemistry, radiocarbon dating, pollen analysis and analysis of micro-charcoal concentration. The results of the study suggest that the Neolithic landscape was probably very dynamic and composed of small patches with different vegetation composition. This vegetation has no present-day analogues. The present-day Slovenian landscape formed only several millennia after the transition to farming

Naselja in vegetacija na Maharskem prekopu, Starih gmajnah in Blatni Brezovici na Ljubljanskem barju v 4. tisočletju pr. n. št.

In the 4th millennium cal BC the hinterlands of Ljubljansko barje basin were covered by beech-fir (Abies-Fagus) and mixed oak (Quercus) forests. People of several Eneolithic cultural groups were cutting/burning forests to open the landscape for fields and pastures. This paper focuses on high-resolution palynological analyses of pile-dwelling settlements Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne and Blatna Brezovica to investigate human impact on the vegetation, and to compare past economy and vegetation history in various parts of Ljubljansko barje. The results revealed that there were no major changes of vegetation throughout the 4th millennium cal. BC, neither were there any major differences between vegetation of the selected study sites. Cultural layers from archaeological sites (in larger quantities than off-site cores) contain pollen of plants that were brought to the settlement by people: cereals and other cultivars (Cereal t., Linum), weeds (Centaurea), grazing indicators (Plantago lanceolata, Campanula, Ranunculaceae), ruderal taxa (Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia), (gathered) shrubs (Corylus) and herbs. Traces of anthropogenic impacts from older settlements were detected in sediments below archaeological cultural layers at all study sites.V 4. tisočletju pr. n. št. so na širšem območju Ljubljanskega barja uspevali pretežno bukovo-jelovi in hrastovi gozdovi. Ljudje različnih arheoloških kulturnih skupin so te gozdove občasno izsekavali, da so si odprli površine za potrebe poljedelstva in paše. Raziskava, ki jo predstavljamo v tem članku, se je usmerila na proučevanje palinološkega zapisa na eneolitskih koliščih Maharski prekop, Stare gmajne in Blatna Brezovica, da bi proučili človekov vpliv na rastlinstvo in primerjali razvoj vegetacije in nekdanje gospodarstvo na različnih delih Ljubljanskega barja. Rezultati visokoresolucijskih palinoloških raziskav so pokazali, da v 4. tisočletju pr. n. št. ni prišlo do večjih sprememb vegetacije, prav tako pa nismo zaznali razlik med vegetacijo v okolici posameznih kolišč, ki ležijo na različnih delih Ljubljanskega barja. Kulturne plasti z arheoloških najdišč (v večji meri kot sočasne plasti v vrtinah izven najdišč) vsebujejo pelod rastlin, ki so jih v naselje prinesli ljudje: žita (Cereal t.) in druge kultivirane rastline (npr. Linum), pleveli (Centaurea), pašni indikatorji (Plantago lanceolata, Campanula, Ranunculaceae), ruderalni taksoni (Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia), nekateri grmi (Corylus) in zeli. Na vseh najdiščih smo v plasteh pod arheološko kulturno plastjo odkrili tudi sledove človekovega vpliva na vegetacijo v času (domnevnih) starejših naselbin v okolici