ПРОБЛЕМА РОЗУМІННЯ В КОНТЕКСТІ КРИТИКИ КОМП'ЮТАЦІОНАЛІЗМУ. (The problem of understanding in the context of computational theory of mind criticism.)

У статті досліджено основні труднощі комп'ютаціональної моделі свідомості, яку розробляли представники аналітичної філософії. Особливу увагу звернено на феномен розуміння, який не може бути відтвореним формально. Критично проаналізовано альтернативний до комп'ютаціоналізму варіант створення штучної свідомості - коннективізм, який ґрунтується на таких принципах функціонування мисленнєвих процесів, які наслідують діяльність кори головного мозку. (The phenomenon of understanding is analyzed in the article. Understanding is defined as the ability of setting the meaning. You can understand different things - text, a situation, a sentence, a word context. It is stated that the phenomenon of understanding has become to analytic philosophy in the middle of the twentieth century, when the intensive development of the theory of artificial intelligence had occured. One of the initial theories explaining the nature of consciousness as a computer program, was the computational theory of mind. It was formulated by A. Turing, J. Fodor, S. Pinker, D. Dennett, H. Putnam. They considered thinking in general and the phenomenon of understanding in particular to be embodied on computers. However many thinkers in analytic philosophy criticized this theory. H. Dreyfus proposed to consider various types of mental activity. One of such types is an informal thinking, that can not be formalized. It is noted that the most famous critic of the computational theory of mind was John Searle, author of the well-known mental experiment "Chinese Room". John Searle argued that the computer calculation and understanding are different phenomena. Computer operates merely with the syntax, but not with the semantics. However, J. Searle reasons were also criticized (in particular by P. S. Churchland and P. M. Churchland). Although the author noted that their arguments are also too weak to refute J. Searle reasons. It is stated that the connectivism doesn't explain the nature of consciousness as well. Connectivism as an alternative to computational theory of mind based on the principles simulating our mental processes is critically analyzed. It is ascertained that the consciousness in general and the understanding in particular are still mysterious phenomena for contemporary science and philosophy.

Синтез, антиоксидантна та антибактеріальна активність флуороалкілзаміщених тіазолідинонів та тіазинанонів, що містять амінофосфонатний або амінокарбоксилатний фрагмент

2-R-2-RF-4-оxo-thiazolidines, thiazinanes, and bezothiazinanes incorporating a fragment of aminophosphonic or aminocarboxylic acid and a fluoroalkyl group at C-2 atom of the heterocycle have been prepared by cyclocondensation of the corresponding iminophosphonates or iminocarboxylates, RFCH(R)=NH [R = (EtO)2P(O), COOMe, RF = CF3, CHF2], with mercaptoacetic, 3-mercaptopropionic or thiosalicylic acid. The primary screening of the compounds on the antioxidant and antibacterial activity has been carried out. The antioxidant activity has been determined by the method based on auto-oxidation of adrenaline; the antibacterial activity has been investigated by the method of double serial dilution with the use of Hottinger broth. The compounds investigated show only an insignificant antioxidant effect and the low activity towards the strains of such bacteria as E. coli, Ps. aeroginosa, B. subtilis and St. aureus. Compounds bearing diethoxyphosphonyl or methoxycarbonyl group at C-2 atom of a five- or six-member heterocycle show the similar activity in general. For 2-fluoroalkyl substituted 4-thiazolidinon- or 4-bezothiazinanones a considerable growth of the culture biomass has been revealed, and it can find application for growth stimulation of producers of biologically active compounds. Compounds incorporating the thiazinanones or bezothiazinanones fragment reveal the prooxidant effect, and it can become a basis for manifestation of the antineoplastic or antimicrobic activity.Циклоконденсацией фторалкилзамещенных иминофосфонатов и иминокарбоксилатов, RFCH(R)=NH [R = (EtO)2P(O), COOMe, RF = CF3, CHF2], с тиогликолевой, 3-меркаптопропионовой или тиосалициловой кислотой синтезированы 2-R-2-RF-4-оксо-тиазолидины, тиазинаны и бензотиазинаны, содержащие фрагмент аминофосфоновой или аминокарбоновой кислоты и фторалкильную группу возле С-2 атома гетероцикла. Проведен первичный скрининг соединений на антиоксидантную и антибактериальную активность. Антиоксидантную активность определяли методом, базирующимся на аутоокислении адреналина, а антибактериальную – методом двукратных серийных разбавлений с использованием бульона Хоттингера. Изученные соединения проявляют только незначительный антиоксидантный эффект и являются малоактивными в отношении исследованных штаммов бактерий E. coli, Ps. aeroginosa, B. subtilis и St. aureus. Соединения с диэтоксифосфонильной или метоксикарбонильной группой возле С-2 атома пяти- или шестичленного гетероцикла в общем проявляют близкую активность. Для 2-фторалкилзамещенных 4-тиазолидинон- или 4-бензотиазинанон фосфонатов выявлен значительный прирост биомассы культур в сравнении с контролем, что может найти применение для стимулирования роста продуцентов биологически активных соединений. Соединения с фрагментом тиазинанона или бензотиазинанона проявляют прооксидантный эффект, что может стать основой для проявления противоопухолевой и противомикробной активности.Циклоконденсацією флуороалкілзаміщених імінофосфонатів та імінокарбоксилатів, RFCH(R)=NH [R = (EtO)2P(O), COOMe, RF = CF3, CHF2], з тіогліколевою, 3-меркаптопропіоновою або тіосаліциловою кислотою синтезовано 2-R-2-RF-4-оксо-тіазолідини, тіазинани та бензотіазинани, що містять фрагмент амінофосфонової або амінокарбонової кислоти та флуороалкільну групу біля С-2 атома гетероциклу. Проведено первинний скринінг сполук на антиоксидантну та антибактеріальну активність. Антиоксидантну активність визначали методом, що базується на аутоокисненні адреналіну, а антибактеріальну – методом двократних серійних розведень з використанням бульйону Хоттингера. Вивчені сполуки проявляють тільки незначний антиоксидантний ефект та є малоактивними по відношенню до досліджених штамів бактерій E. coli, Ps. aeroginosa, B. subtilis та St. aureus. Сполуки з діетоксифосфонільною або метоксикарбонільною групою біля С-2 атома п’яти- або шестичленного гетероциклу загалом проявляють подібну активність. Для 2-флуороалкілзаміщених 4-тіазолідинон- або 4-бензотіазинанон фосфонатів виявлено значний приріст біомаси культур порівняно з контролем, що може знайти застосування для стимулювання росту продуцентів біологічно активних сполук. Сполуки з фрагментом тіазинанону або бензотіазинанону проявляють прооксидантний ефект, що може стати основою для прояву протипухлинної та антимікробної активності

Cell walls of the dimorphic fungal pathogens Sporothrix schenckii and Sporothrix brasiliensis exhibit bilaminate structures and sloughing of extensive and intact layers

This work was supported by the Fundação Carlos Chagas de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), grants E-26/202.974/2015 and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), grants 229755/2013-5, Brazil. LMLB is a senior research fellow of CNPq and Faperj. NG acknowledged support from the Wellcome Trust (Trust (097377, 101873, 200208) and MRC Centre for Medical Mycology (MR/N006364/1). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.Peer reviewedPublisher PD

Label-free chemically specific imaging in planta with stimulated Raman scattering microscopy.

The growing world population puts ever-increasing demands on the agricultural and agrochemical industries to increase agricultural yields. This can only be achieved by investing in fundamental plant and agrochemical research and in the development of improved analytical tools to support research in these areas. There is currently a lack of analytical tools that provide noninvasive structural and chemical analysis of plant tissues at the cellular scale. Imaging techniques such as coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) and stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy provide label-free chemically specific image contrast based on vibrational spectroscopy. Over the past decade, these techniques have been shown to offer clear advantages for a vast range of biomedical research applications. The intrinsic vibrational contrast provides label-free quantitative functional analysis, it does not suffer from photobleaching, and it allows near real-time imaging in 3D with submicrometer spatial resolution. However, due to the susceptibility of current detection schemes to optical absorption and fluorescence from pigments (such as chlorophyll), the plant science and agrochemical research communities have not been able to benefit from these techniques and their application in plant research has remained virtually unexplored. In this paper, we explore the effect of chlorophyll fluorescence and absorption in CARS and SRS microscopy. We show that with the latter it is possible to use phase-sensitive detection to separate the vibrational signal from the (electronic) absorption processes. Finally, we demonstrate the potential of SRS for a range of in planta applications by presenting in situ chemical analysis of plant cell wall components, epicuticular waxes, and the deposition of agrochemical formulations onto the leaf surface

Insights into the chemical composition of Equisetum hyemale by high resolution Raman imaging

Equisetaceae has been of research interest for decades, as it is one of the oldest living plant families, and also due to its high accumulation of silica up to 25% dry wt. Aspects of silica deposition, its association with other biomolecules, as well as the chemical composition of the outer strengthening tissue still remain unclear. These questions were addressed by using high resolution (<1 μm) Confocal Raman microscopy. Two-dimensional spectral maps were acquired on cross sections of Equisetum hyemale and Raman images calculated by integrating over the intensity of characteristic spectral regions. This enabled direct visualization of differences in chemical composition and extraction of average spectra from defined regions for detailed analyses, including principal component analysis (PCA) and basis analysis (partial least square fit based on model spectra). Accumulation of silica was imaged in the knobs and in a thin layer below the cuticula. In the spectrum extracted from the knob region as main contributions, a broad band below 500 cm−1 attributed to amorphous silica, and a band at 976 cm−1 assigned to silanol groups, were found. From this, we concluded that these protrusions were almost pure amorphous, hydrated silica. No silanol group vibration was detected in the silicified epidermal layer below and association with pectin and hemicelluloses indicated. Pectin and hemicelluloses (glucomannan) were found in high levels in the epidermal layer and in a clearly distinguished outer part of the hypodermal sterome fibers. The inner part of the two-layered cells revealed as almost pure cellulose, oriented parallel along the fiber

Recent developments in mushrooms as anti-cancer therapeutics: a review

From time immemorial, mushrooms have been valued by humankind as a culinary wonder and folk medicine in Oriental practice. The last decade has witnessed the overwhelming interest of western research fraternity in pharmaceutical potential of mushrooms. The chief medicinal uses of mushrooms discovered so far are as anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, hypocholesterolemic, anti-tumor, anti-cancer, immunomodulatory, anti-allergic, nephroprotective, and anti-microbial agents. The mushrooms credited with success against cancer belong to the genus Phellinus, Pleurotus, Agaricus, Ganoderma, Clitocybe, Antrodia, Trametes, Cordyceps, Xerocomus, Calvatia, Schizophyllum, Flammulina, Suillus, Inonotus, Inocybe, Funlia, Lactarius, Albatrellus, Russula, and Fomes. The anti-cancer compounds play crucial role as reactive oxygen species inducer, mitotic kinase inhibitor, anti-mitotic, angiogenesis inhibitor, topoisomerase inhibitor, leading to apoptosis, and eventually checking cancer proliferation. The present review updates the recent findings on the pharmacologically active compounds, their anti-tumor potential, and underlying mechanism of biological action in order to raise awareness for further investigations to develop cancer therapeutics from mushrooms. The mounting evidences from various research groups across the globe, regarding anti-tumor application of mushroom extracts unarguably make it a fast-track research area worth mass attention