FULL POLARIMETRIC TIME SERIES IMAGE ANALYSIS FOR CROP TYPE MAPPING

Crop information and quality are not only fundamental for experts using spatial decision support systems but also have many applications in irrigation management, economic analysis for import or export, food safety, and achieving sustainable agriculture. Remote sensing is a cheap and fast way of reaching this goal. Full polarimetric SAR unlike optical sensors is an all-weather system providing geometrical and physical properties of the earth’s surface events. Due to the dynamic changes in crop properties through their phenological stages, crop type mapping has been challenging. As a result, accurate, reliable, and cost-effective crop type mapping using minimum data and processing has been the goal of the remote sensing and precision agriculture community. In this study, a new method based on time series analysis of full polarimetric SAR data combined with radar indices, polarimetric decompositions followed by the three αs extracted from H/A/α decomposition, and unsupervised H/α/Wishart classification bands as features generated from only 5 dates of RADARSAT CONSTELLATION MISSION 2 data were used for classification of crops. Applying random forest and cat boost algorithm as classifiers an accuracy of 87.4% and 75% was respectively achieved. indicating that both algorithms have promising results. Although the random forest algorithm had better results, the cat boost algorithm had less noise in each field and more homogenous farms were detected

Definition of homogenous damage zones caused by hail in agricultural crops using remote sensing data

[EN] The frequency and intensity of extreme worldwide weather events have increased in recent decades, causing enormous economic losses. In Argentina, in the 2017-2018 agricultural season, more than 200 million dollars were allocated to protect soy, corn and wheat crops against hail. After a storm, a field survey by an expert is required to estimate the yield losses caused by hail, without prior information on the affected regions or their intensity. The precision in the estimation of the damage depends to a great extent on the identification of Homogeneous Damage Zones (HDZ) within the plot, which is further used to quantify the total damage. Currently, HDZ are delimited using in-situ visual techniques. This research suggests developing an algorithm to define the HDZ applying Machine Learning techniques to vegetation indices derived from Sentinel 1 and 2 data. For this purpose, 5 microwave indices (DPDD, IDPDD, VDDPI, MPDI and DPSVI) and 5 spectral indices (NDVI, EVI, SAVI, AVI and NPCRI) were tested. The most sensitive indices to changes were selected, for both microwave and optical signals, and were in turn integrated into the damage detection model. A K-Means (k = 3) machine learning algorithm was used to define the classes. To validate the algorithm, 38 storms that occurred between 2017 and 2020 were analyzed in 91 soybean, wheat and corn plots located in the Argentine Pampean plain. The One-Way ANOVA model (p <0.05) was applied to each plot. The selected indices were DPSVI and NPCRI. HDZ were correctly detected in 66.67%, 78.13% and 72.70% of the analyzed cases, for corn, wheat and soybean crops, respectively. It is concluded that the designed algorithm allows defining efficiently HDZ caused by hail, giving transparency and precision to the work of the expert and reducing time consuming field surveys.[ES] La frecuencia e intensidad de los eventos meteorológicos extremos, a nivel mundial, se han incrementado en las últimas décadas, provocando enormes pérdidas económicas. En Argentina, en la campaña agrícola 2017-2018, se destinaron más de 200 millones de dólares para proteger los cultivos soja, maíz y trigo contra granizo. Luego de una tormenta, un perito visita el campo para estimar las mermas de rendimiento causadas por granizo, sin información previa de las regiones afectadas ni su intensidad. La precisión en la estimación del daño depende en gran medida de la identificación de Zonas Homogéneas de Daños (ZHD) dentro de la parcela para ponderar el daño total. Actualmente, las ZHD se delimitan acampo con técnicas visuales. Se propone desarrollar un algoritmo para definir las ZHD aplicando técnicas Machine Learning a índices de vegetación calculados con datos Sentinel 1 y 2. Se procesaron y compararon 5 índices de microondas (DPDD, IDPDD, VDDPI, MPDI y DPSVI) y 5 espectrales (NDVI, EVI, SAVI, AVI y NPCRI) y se seleccionó el más sensible a los cambios para cada tipo de señal; además, se incorporaron como variable de entrada al modelo las derivadas de ambos índices. Para definir las clases se empleó K-Means (k = 3). Para validar el algoritmo se analizaron38 tormentas ocurridas entre los años 2017 y 2020 en 91 parcelas de soja, trigo y maíz ubicadas en la llanura pampeana argentina. Se aplicó a cada parcela el modelo One-Way ANOVA (p &lt;0.05). Los índices seleccionados fueron DPSVI y NPCRI. Se detectaron correctamente ZHD en un 66,67%, 78,13% y 72,70% de los casos analizados, para los cultivos de maíz, trigo y soja, respectivamente. Se concluye que el algoritmo permite definir en forma eficiente ZHD causados por granizo dando transparencia y precisión a la labor del perito y disminuyendo el tiempo de sus tareas a campo.Sosa-Avaro, L.; Justel, A.; Molina, I. (2021). Definición de zonas homogéneas de daño causado por granizo en cultivos agrícolas utilizando datos de sensores remotos. En Proceedings 3rd Congress in Geomatics Engineering. Editorial Universitat Politècnica de València. 278-284. https://doi.org/10.4995/CiGeo2021.2021.12737OCS27828

Advances in Radar Remote Sensing of Agricultural Crops: A Review

There are enormous advantages of a review article in the field of emerging technology like radar remote sensing applications in agriculture. This paper aims to report select recent advancements in the field of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) remote sensing of crops. In order to make the paper comprehensive and more meaningful for the readers, an attempt has also been made to include discussion on various technologies of SAR sensors used for remote sensing of agricultural crops viz. basic SAR sensor, SAR interferometry (InSAR), SAR polarimetry (PolSAR) and polarimetric interferometry SAR (PolInSAR). The paper covers all the methodologies used for various agricultural applications like empirically based models, machine learning based models and radiative transfer theorem based models. A thorough literature review of more than 100 research papers indicates that SAR polarimetry can be used effectively for crop inventory and biophysical parameters estimation such are leaf area index, plant water content, and biomass but shown less sensitivity towards plant height as compared to SAR interferometry. Polarimetric SAR Interferometry is preferable for taking advantage of both SAR polarimetry and SAR interferometry. Numerous studies based upon multi-parametric SAR indicate that optimum selection of SAR sensor parameters enhances SAR sensitivity as a whole for various agricultural applications. It has been observed that researchers are widely using three models such are empirical, machine learning and radiative transfer theorem based models. Machine learning based models are identified as a better approach for crop monitoring using radar remote sensing data. It is expected that the review article will not only generate interest amongst the readers to explore and exploit radar remote sensing for various agricultural applications but also provide a ready reference to the researchers working in this field

Estimating Global Ecosystem Isohydry/Anisohydry Using Active and Passive Microwave Satellite Data

The concept of isohydry/anisohydry describes the degree to which plants regulate their water status, operating from isohydric with strict regulation to anisohydric with less regulation. Though some species level measures of isohydry/anisohydry exist at a few locations, ecosystem-scale information is still largely unavailable. In this study, we use diurnal observations from active (Ku-Band backscatter from QuikSCAT) and passive (X-band vegetation optical depth (VOD) from Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer on EOS Aqua) microwave satellite data to estimate global ecosystem isohydry/anisohydry. Here diurnal observations from both satellites approximate predawn and midday plant canopy water contents, which are used to estimate isohydry/anisohydry. The two independent estimates from radar backscatter and VOD show reasonable agreement at low and middle latitudes but diverge at high latitudes. Grasslands, croplands, wetlands, and open shrublands are more anisohydric, whereas evergreen broadleaf and deciduous broadleaf forests are more isohydric. The direct validation with upscaled in situ species isohydry/anisohydry estimates indicates that the VOD-based estimates have much better agreement than the backscatter-based estimates. The indirect validation with prior knowledge suggests that both estimates are generally consistent in that vegetation water status of anisohydric ecosystems more closely tracks environmental fluctuations of water availability and demand than their isohydric counterparts. However, uncertainties still exist in the isohydry/anisohydry estimate, primarily arising from the remote sensing data and, to a lesser extent, from the methodology. The comprehensive assessment in this study can help us better understand the robustness, limitation, and uncertainties of the satellite-derived isohydry/anisohydry estimates. The ecosystem isohydry/anisohydry has the potential to reveal new insights into spatiotemporal ecosystem response to droughts

A 3-D Full-Wave Model to Study the Impact of Soybean Components and Structure on L-Band Backscatter

Microwave remote sensing offers a powerful tool for monitoring the growth of short, dense vegetation like soybean. As the plants mature, changes in their biomass and 3-D structure impact the electromagnetic (EM) backscatter signal. This backscatter information holds valuable insights into crop health and yield, prompting the need for a comprehensive understanding of how structural and biophysical properties of soybeans as well as soil characteristics contribute to the overall backscatter signature. In this study, a full-wave model is developed for simulating L-band backscatter from soybean fields. Leveraging the ANSYS High-Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) framework, the model solves for the scattering of EM waves from realistic 3-D structural models of soybean, explicitly incorporating the interplant scattering effects. The model estimates of backscatter match well with the field observations from the SMAPVEX16-MicroWEX and SMAPVEX12, with average differences of 1-2 dB for co-pol and less than 4 dB for cross-pol. Furthermore, the model effectively replicates the temporal dynamics of crop backscatter throughout the growing season. The HFSS analysis revealed that the stems and pods are the primary contributors to HH-pol backscatter, while the branches contribute to VV-pol, and leaves impact the cross-pol signatures. In addition, a sensitivity study with 3-D bare soil surface resulted in an average variation of 8 dB in co- and cross-pol, even when the root mean square height and correlation length were held constant

Robust machine learning techniques for rice crop variables estimation using multiangular bistatic scattering coefficients

The present study is designed to explore the potential of bistatic scattering coefficients (σ °) and machine learning algorithms for the estimation of rice crop variables using ground-based multiangular, multitemporal, and dual-polarized bistatic scatterometer data. The bistatic scatterometer measurements are carried out at eight different growth stages of the rice crop in the angular range of incidence angle 20 deg to 70 deg for HH- and VV-polarization at 10-GHz frequency in the specular direction with an azimuthal angle (φ  =  0). Several field measurements are taken for the measurement of rice crop variables, such as vegetation water content, leaf area index, and plant height at its various growth stages. Machine learning algorithms—such as fuzzy inference system (FIS), support vector machine for regression (SVR), and generalized linear model (GLM)—are used to estimate the rice crop variables using bistatic scatterometer data. The linear regression analysis is carried out for the evaluation of the multiangular, multitemporal, and dual-polarized datasets for the selection of optimum incidence angle and polarization for accurate estimation of rice crop variables. The highest value of the coefficient of determination (R2) is found at 30-deg incidence angle for VV-polarization. The sensitivity of copolarized ratio of σ °   with the rice crop variable is also evaluated using linear regression analysis for the estimation of rice crop variables. The highest value of R^2 is found to be at 35-deg incidence angle between the copolarized ratio of σ °   and rice crop variables. The performance of SVR model is found superior in comparison to the FIS and GLM at VV-polarization and the copolarized ratio of σ °   for the estimation of rice crop variables. However, the copolarized ratio of σ °   is found superior to VV-polarized bistatic scatterometer data for the estimation of rice crop variables

Influence of Incidence Angle in the Correlation of C-band Polarimetric Parameters with Biophysical Variables of Rain-fed Crops

A multi-temporal field experiment was conducted within the Soil Measurement Stations Network of the University of Salamanca (REMEDHUS) in Spain in order to retrieve useful crop information. The objective of this research was to evaluate the potential of polarimetric observations for crop monitoring by exploiting a time series of 20 quad-pol RADARSAT-2 images at different incidence angles (i.e. 25°, 31°, and 36°) during an entire growing season of rain-fed crops, from February to July 2015. The time evolution of 6 crop biophysical variables was gathered from the field measurements, whereas 10 polarimetric parameters were derived from the images. Thus, a subsequent correlation analysis between both datasets was performed. The study demonstrates that the backscattering ratios (HH/VV and HV/VV), the normalized correlation between HH and VV (γHHVV), and the dominant alpha angle (α1), showed significant and relevant correlations with several biophysical variables such as biomass, height, or leaf area index (LAI) at incidence angles of 31° or 36°. The joint use of data acquired with different beams could be exploited effectively to increase the refresh rate of information about crop condition with respect to a single incidence acquisition scheme.This study was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness and the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, [Projects ESP2015-67549-C3-3, ESP2017-89463-C3-3-R, and TEC2017-85244-C2-1-P] and the European Regional Development Fund (FEDER)

Étude comparative d’indices de végétation radar à plusieurs fréquences et de l’indice de végétation optique (NDVI) pour le suivi de la croissance des cultures

De nos jours, la télédétection contribue énormément dans le domaine de l’agriculture. La possibilité d’acquisition des mesures en tout temps et la non sensibilité aux perturbations atmosphériques sont des avantages reconnus à la télédétection radar. Cette étude a pour objectif d’effectuer une analyse comparative des indices radar, à savoir l’indice de végétation radar (RVI) et l’indice de végétation radar à double polarisation (IVRDvv) dans trois fréquences (L, C et X) et de l’indice de végétation par différence normalisée (NDVI) utilisé en télédétection multispectrale optique dans un contexte de suivi de la croissance des cultures de blé, de canola, de maïs et de soja. Pour y parvenir, ces indices de végétation radar (RVI et IVRDvv) calculés à plusieurs fréquences et l’indice optique (NDVI) sont utilisés pour effectuer un suivi temporel de la croissance de ces quatre cultures. D’une part, l’efficacité des indices de végétation radar à traduire la quantité de la biomasse végétale disponible est analysée en déterminant l’indice et la fréquence les mieux adaptés au suivi de la croissance de chaque type de culture. D’autre part, la corrélation des indices de végétation radar (RVI et IVRDvv) et le NDVI par rapport à la quantité de la biomasse végétale est utilisée pour apprécier l’usage de ces indices de végétation radar comme alternative à l’utilisation du NDVI dans un contexte de suivi de la croissance des cultures de blé, de canola, de maïs et de soja. Les indices radar RVI (indice de végétation radar) et IVRDvv (indice de végétation radar à double polarisation) ont été calculés sur la base d’images acquises sur les sites des campagnes de terrain SMAP Validation Experiment 2012 (SMAPVEX12) et SMAP Validation Experiment 2016 in Manitoba (SMAPVEX16-MB) situés au Sud du Manitoba. Les données de biomasse végétale ainsi que l’indice de surface foliaire (LAI) ont été recueillis directement sur le terrain durant ces deux campagnes. Les données radar en bande L proviennent de la campagne SMAPVEX12, elles sont acquises par un Uninhabited Aerial Vehicule Synthetic Aperture Radar UAVSAR; celles utilisées en bande C et X ont été acquises durant la campagne SMAPVEX16-MB par les satellites Radarsat-2 et TerraSAR-X, respectivement. Les données optiques proviennent des images de Sentinelle-2. Le suivi de la croissance des cultures de blé, de canola, de maïs et de soja sur une base temporelle a permis de remarquer l’inefficacité de la bande L à évaluer la croissance des plantes. Le coefficient de rétrodiffusion dans cette bande est contrôlé par les paramètres de surface et particulièrement l’humidité du sol plutôt que la biomasse végétale. Les indices de végétation radar en bandes C et X ont présenté de bons résultats qui traduisent l’évolution de la quantité de la biomasse végétale disponible; la bande X étant toutefois beaucoup mieux corrélée à la biomasse végétale. Pour le blé, la quantité de biomasse végétale est mieux corrélée à l’IVRDvv en bande X (R = 0,9) que le NDVI (R = 0,7). De même, pour la culture de canola, la quantité de la biomasse disponible est légèrement mieux corrélée à l’IVRDvv en bande X (R =0,96) qu’au NDVI (R=0,9). D’autre part, le RVI et l’IVRDvv en bande C pour les cultures de maïs et de soja a montré des fortes corrélations avec le NDVI (R = 0,9). Ces résultats montrent que dans un contexte de suivi de la croissance des végétaux, les indices de végétation radar en bande C et X sont une alternative à l’indice de végétation par différence normalisée utilisé en télédétection optique