Dynamics of group knowledge production in facilitated modelling workshops: an exploratory study

The term ‘facilitated modelling’ is used in the literature to characterise an approach to structuring problems, developing options and evaluating decisions by groups working in a model-supported workshop environment, and assisted by a facilitator. The approach involves an interactive process by which models are jointly developed with group members interacting face-to-face, with or without computer support. The models produced are used to inform negotiations about the nature of the issues faced by the group, and how to address them. While the facilitated modelling literature is impressive, published empirical research rarely examines what actually happens in a facilitated modelling environment. The present study addresses this gap by reporting on exploratory empirical research undertaken to closely examine the conduct of facilitated modelling within its actual context of immediate use, namely, the workshop. Drawing on the knowledge-perspective of group communication, we conducted a micro-level analysis of a transcript of a facilitated modelling workshop held with the management team of an Alternative Food Network in the UK. Our analysis suggests that facilitated modelling interactions can take the form of three distinct group knowledge production patterns: generative, collaborative and assertive. Further, each pattern is characterised by a particular mix of communicative behaviours and model-supported interactions that has implications for the creation of new knowledge within the workshop. Our findings contribute to increase our understanding of the nature of facilitated modelling within its context of use

Decision development in facilitated modelling workshops

While the facilitated modelling literature recognises the importance of the group process within facilitated modelling workshops, published empirical research rarely examines their dynamic nature. In this paper, we address this gap in the literature in two ways. First, we propose to locate facilitated modelling workshops as the main focus of investigation, and adopt decision development as the analytical lens. Second, we provide guidance regarding how to implement a research strategy that is informed by such a focus. We start by mapping the different conceptualisations of decision development that seem embedded within the facilitated modelling tradition, and contrast them with theoretical models from the group communication field. Our analysis identifies a number of potentially useful areas for the study of facilitated modelling workshops from a decision development perspective, and articulates a number tentative research questions and testable propositions amenable to empirical research. Central to our proposal are research methods for the study of dynamic group processes. We thus discuss the steps required to extract group process data from facilitated modelling workshops that are usable and open to analysis. This includes a review of issues regarding research design, coding scheme development, data coding and choice of analytical techniques. Finally, we offer conclusions and briefly discuss some feasibility issues related to the implementation of our proposal

Making OR practice visible: Using ethnomethodology to analyse facilitated modelling workshops

Empirical studies attempting to open the ‘black box’ of the practice of operational research (OR) are beginning to appear in the literature, particularly within the area known as behavioural OR. Many scholars within this community share a commitment to both empirically investigate what OR practitioners and users actually do when engaged in OR-supported processes, and evaluate what the effect of these ‘doings’ is. Despite these developments, we still know very little about the complexities and situated specifics of OR practice as it happens on the ground. This is mostly due to the methodological challenges involved in treating real-time OR practice as an analytical problem, which requires making OR practice ‘visible’ by bringing to the fore its material and interactional features for close examination. In this paper we adopt ethnomethodology as one way to address this challenge. Using an empirical vignette drawn from a facilitated modelling workshop in which causal mapping was used with a top management team, we illustrate how an ethnomethodologically-informed perspective can reveal the ways in which OR-supported activity is practically accomplished by those involved, moment by moment, and with what effects. We conclude the paper by summarising the contribution that these kinds of fine-grained studies of OR practice make to the behavioural OR agenda, and outline some potentially useful avenues for future research

Playing the new devil’s advocate role in facilitated modelling processes to address group homogeneity

To address complex issues, facilitated modelling aims to represent and accommodate plural worldviews from many stakeholders and experts. In these contexts, group homogeneity can become problematic when participants’ plurality of perspectives and information is missing and people attending facilitated sessions have similar problem perceptions and interests. This is a challenge because it can lead to narrow discussion, groupthink and undermine output quality. Despite not being uncommon, effective approaches to deal with homogeneity are hardly reported. This paper presents a new role—the New Devil’s Advocate—in which some facilitators leave their neutrality-oriented stance and act as the missing stakeholders. The paper illustrates a first application to a group model building process aimed at supporting the development of energy efficiency policies in the UK. To evaluate the results, workshop transcripts were coded, participants’ and facilitators’ feedback collected, and the modelling output assessed with respect to the New Devil’s Advocate interventions during the workshop. Although the role performance appears to increase facilitators’ workload and be influenced by role performers’ personality and background, the analysis shows positive results as a promising practice to address homogeneity. Additionally, it offers a practical experience of how facilitation teams may temporarily abandon neutrality and intervene on content

Artefact Appropriation in Facilitated Modelling: An Adaptive Structuration Theory Approach

Scholars have long acknowledged the importance of unveiling the black box of Operational Research (OR) practice. However, despite the emerging empirical studies in the area known as ‘Behavioural OR’, there is still a dearth of research into how artefacts are used at the micro-level of OR practice. This paper addresses this gap by using Adaptive Structuration Theory (AST) to study the appropriation (use) of artefacts during a Facilitated Modelling (FM) workshop. We argue that the appropriation of artefacts from the workshop participants enables them to engage in negotiation of meaning with action implications effectively, but appropriation occurs at varying intensities (high, medium, low) depending on the issue of concern. Moreover, we identify that artefacts are reproduced if their reproduction is an aim or part of an aim of strategic discourse. Finally, we outline the limitations of our study and future research avenues

Can involving clients in simulation studies help them solve their future problems? A transfer of learning experiment

It is often stated that involving the client in operational research studies increases conceptual learning about a system which can then be applied repeatedly to other, similar, systems. Our study provides a novel measurement approach for behavioural OR studies that aim to analyse the impact of modelling in long term problem solving and decision making. In particular, our approach is the first to operationalise the measurement of transfer of learning from modelling using the concepts of close and far transfer, and overconfidence. We investigate learning in discrete-event simulation (DES) projects through an experimental study. Participants were trained to manage queuing problems by varying the degree to which they were involved in building and using a DES model of a hospital emergency department. They were then asked to transfer learning to a set of analogous problems. Findings demonstrate that transfer of learning from a simulation study is difficult, but possible. However, this learning is only accessible when sufficient time is provided for clients to process the structural behaviour of the model. Overconfidence is also an issue when the clients who were involved in model building attempt to transfer their learning without the aid of a new model. Behavioural OR studies that aim to understand learning from modelling can ultimately improve our modelling interactions with clients; helping to ensure the benefits for a longer term; and enabling modelling efforts to become more sustainable

Towards fully-facilitated DES modelling:a successful project

The literature suggests that increasing stakeholder engagement in modelling has a positive impact on healthcare improvement projects using discrete-event simulation (DES). This suggests analysts should strive for the ‘fully-facilitated’ mode of simulation, meaning conducting the whole simulation project together with stakeholders. This paper investigates whether this might be possible in practice. This work arose from a research project with an Italian hospital. The paper describes a simulation project that succeeds in being fully-facilitated through all stages as far as the implementation stage, through combining Business Process Model and Notation (BPMN) and DES. We believe it is the first time that a fully-facilitated DES project in healthcare has been described

Digital service analysis and design : the role of process modelling

Digital libraries are evolving from content-centric systems to person-centric systems. Emergent services are interactive and multidimensional, associated systems multi-tiered and distributed. A holistic perspective is essential to their effective analysis and design, for beyond technical considerations, there are complex social, economic, organisational, and ergonomic requirements and relationships to consider. Such a perspective cannot be gained without direct user involvement, yet evidence suggests that development teams may be failing to effectively engage with users, relying on requirements derived from anecdotal evidence or prior experience. In such instances, there is a risk that services might be well designed, but functionally useless. This paper highlights the role of process modelling in gaining such perspective. Process modelling challenges, approaches, and success factors are considered, discussed with reference to a recent evaluation of usability and usefulness of a UK National Health Service (NHS) digital library. Reflecting on lessons learnt, recommendations are made regarding appropriate process modelling approach and application

Zooming in on problem structuring interventions: An affordance perspective

Empirical studies examining the complex dynamics between the social and material aspects of OR interventions are beginning to appear in the literature. Despite these advancements, we know very little about these dynamics at the micro-level of analysis. This is partly because of a lack of theories that can inform an empirically grounded understanding of the interplay between the social and the material as they become interwoven in micro-level practices. To address this gap, I adopt an affordance perspective to examine how the materiality of an OR technology can shape, but not fully determine, social actors' behaviours during interaction with that technology. I illustrate the potential usefulness of the affordance perspective for the case of problem structuring interventions that use Group Explorer as a group causal mapping technology. I then show, via an empirical case vignette, how perceptions of affordances called forth by the technology affect social actors' behaviours within a strategy workshop. I conclude with a discussion of the implications of adopting an affordance perspective for the conduct of OR intervention research and practice

Insights into the development of strategy from a complexity perspective

This paper provides an account of an ongoing project with an independent school in the UK. The project focuses on a strategy development intervention which, from the start, was systemic in orientation. The intention was to integrate simple systems concepts and approaches into the strategy development process to: address power relations in actively engaging a wide range of stakeholders with the school’s strategy-making process; generate a range of good ideas; and make the strategy-making process transparent in order to inspire stakeholder confidence in, and commitment to, it and its outcomes. This paper describes how seeking to meet these aims entailed a series of workshops during the course of which an awareness of the relevance, in our interpretation, of Complex Adaptive Systems concepts grew