Cartografiado de áreas arenosas y sus cambios mediante teledetección. Caso de estudio en el noreste de la provincia de Al-Muthanna, sur de Irak

[EN] Sandy areas are the main problem in regions of arid and semi-arid climate in the world that threaten urban life, buildings, agricultural, and even human health. Remote sensing is one of the technologies that can be used as an effective tool in dynamic features study of sandy areas and sand accumulations. In this study, two new indices were developed to separate the sandy areas from the non-sandy areas. The first one is called the Normalized Differential Sandy Areas Index (NDSAI) that has been based on the assumption that the sandy area has the lowest water content (moisture) than the other land cover classes. The second other is called the Sandy Areas Surface Temperature index (SASTI) which was built on the assumption that the surface temperature of sandy soil is the highest. The results of proposed indices have been compared with two indices that were previously proposed by other researchers, namely the Normalized Differential Sand Dune Index NDSI and the Eolain Mapping Index (EMI). The accuracy assessment of the sandy indices showed that the NDSAI provides very good performance with an overall accuracy of 89 %. The SASTI can isolate many sandy and non-sandy pixels with an overall accuracy about 86 %. The performance of the NDSI is low with an overall accuracy about 82 %. It fails to classify or isolate the vegetation area from the sandy area and might have better performance in desert environments. The performing of NDSAI that is calculated with the SWIR1 band of the Landsat satellite is better than the performing of NDSI that is calculated with the SWIR2 band of the same satellite. EMI performance is less robust than other methods as it is not useful for extracting sandy surfaces in area with different land covers. Change detection techniques were used by comparing the areas of the sandy lands for the periods from 1987 to 2017. The results showed an increase in sandy areas over four decades. The percentage of this increase was about 20 % to 30 % during 2002 and 2017 compared to 1987.[ES] Las áreas arenosas son el principal problema en las regiones de clima árido y semiárido del mundo que amenazan la vida urbana, los edificios, la agricultura e incluso la salud humana. La teledetección es una de las tecnologías que puede utilizarse como una herramienta eficaz en el estudio de características dinámicas de áreas arenosas y acumulaciones de arena. En este estudio, se desarrollaron dos nuevos índices para separar las áreas arenosas de las áreas no arenosas. El primero llamado Índice de áreas arenosas diferenciales normalizadas (NDSAI), que se ha basado en el supuesto de que el área arenosa tiene el contenido de agua (humedad) más bajo que las otras clases de cobertura del suelo. El segundo llamado índice de temperatura superficial de las áreas arenosas (SASTI), que se basa en el supuesto de que la temperatura superficial del suelo arenoso es la más alta. Estos nuevos índices se han comparado con dos índices propuestos previamente por otros investigadores, a saber, el Índice de dunas de arena diferencial normalizado NDSI y el Eolain Mapping Index (EMI). La evaluación de la precisión de los índices arenosos mostró que el índice NDSAI proporciona un buen desempeño con una precisión general del 89 %. El índice SASTI puede extraer muchos píxeles arenosos y no arenosos con una precisión general del 86 %. El rendimiento del índice NDSI es pobre, con una precisión general del 82 %, no puede clasificar o aislar el área de vegetación del área arenosa y tal vez funcione mejor en entornos desérticos. El índice NDSAI calculado con la banda SWIR1 del satélite Landsat generó resultados más precisos que el NDSI calculado con la banda SWIR2 del mismo satélite. El índice EMI utilizado fue menos robusto que los otros métodos ya que no ha logrado extraer áreas arenosas con una precisión aceptable en áreas con diversas coberturas terrestres. Se utilizaron técnicas de detección de cambios para analizar las áreas de las tierras arenosas para los períodos de 1987 a 2017. Los resultados marcaron un aumento en las áreas arenosas durante cuatro décadas. El porcentaje de este aumento fue de aproximadamente 20 % a 30 % durante 2002 y 2017 en comparación con 1987.Sahar, AA.; Rasheed, MJ.; Uaid, DAA.; Jasim, AA. (2021). Mapping Sandy Areas and their changes using remote sensing. A Case Study at North-East Al-Muthanna Province, South of Iraq. Revista de Teledetección. 0(58):39-52. https://doi.org/10.4995/raet.2021.13622OJS3952058Abbas, A. 2010. Desertification Study of Dalmaj Lake Area in Mesopotamian Plain by Using Remote Sensing Techniques. Baghdad University.Abdul-Ameer, E.A. 2012. 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Contribution à la caractérisation de sites sableux : signature spectro-directionnelle, distribution en taille et minéralogie extraites d'échantillons de sables

International audienceThe characterization of sands detailed in this paper has been performed in order to support the in-flight radiometric performance assessment of space-borne optical sensors over so-called Pseudo-Invariant Calibration Sites (PICS). Although the physical properties of PICS surface are fairly stable in time, the signal measured from space varies with the illumination and the viewing geometries. Thus there is a need to characterize the spectro-directional properties of PICS. This can be done, at a broad scale, thanks to multi-spectral multi-directional space-borne sensors such as the POLDER instrument (with old data). However, interpolating or extrapolating the spectro-directional reflectances measured from space to spectral bands of another sensor is not straightforward. The hyperspectral characterization of sand samples collected within or nearby PICS can contribute to a solution. In this context, a set of 31 sand samples was compiled. The BiConical Reflectance Factor (BCRF) was measured between 0.4 and 2.5 µm, over a quarter hemisphere when the amount of sand in the sample was large enough and for only a single fixed angular configuration for small samples. These optical measurements were complemented by grain size distribution measurements and mineralogical analysis and compiled together with previously published measurements in the so-called PICSAND database, freely available on line.La caractérisation des sables détaillée dans cet article a été faite en soutien à l'estimation en vol des performances radiométriques des capteurs optiques spatiaux à partir des sites appelés PICS pour Pseudo-Invariant Calibration Sites. Bien que les propriétés physiques des PICS soient relativement stables dans le temps, le signal mesuré depuis l'espace varie en fonction des géométries d'illumination et d'observation. De ce fait, il est nécessaire de caractériser les propriétés spectro-directionnelles des PICS. Ceci peut être fait, à une grande échelle, à partir de capteurs spatiaux multi-spectraux et multi-directionnels tels que le capteur POLDER (avec des données anciennes). Cependant, l'interpolation ou l'extrapolation des réflectances spectro-directionnelles obtenues depuis l'espace aux bandes spectrales d'un autre capteur est délicate. La caractérisation hyperspectrale d'échantillons de sable issus de PICS ou de leur voisinage peut participer à une solution. Dans ce contexte, 31 échantillons de sable ont été collectés. Le Facteur de Reflectance BiConique (BCRF) a été mesuré entre 0,4 et 2,5 µm, pour une demi-hémisphère lorsque la quantité de sable était suffisante, et pour une seule géométrie pour les échantillons plus petits. Ces mesures optiques ont été complétées par des mesures de distribution en taille et par une analyse minéralogique, et mises dans une base de données appelée PICSAND avec d'autres mesures publiées dans la littérature. Cette base de donnée est en libre accès en ligne

Spatio-temporal variability in dune plant communities using UAV and multispectral data

O mapeamento da vegetação, através da identificação do tipo e distribuição das comunidades e espécies vegetais, é crucial para analisar a cobertura vegetal e os padrões espaciais. A compreensão das variabilidades espaciais e temporais das plantas dunares em ligação com a morfodinâmica permite uma maior compreensão do dinamismo e evolução dos ambientes costeiros. Tal análise pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento de planos de gestão costeira que ajudam a implementar a biodiversidade costeira e estratégias de protecção. Esta dissertação apresenta uma abordagem para avaliar a utilização de imagens multiespectrais e explorar a variabilidade da vegetação dunar costeira com dados recolhidos à distância por um Veículo Aéreo Não Tripulado (UAV). Foram escolhidas quatro zonas de estudo diferentes na parte oriental da Península de Ancao, distribuídas alongshore, e cobrindo a backhore e a crista das dunas até à base do lee das dunas. Foram utilizados dados de campo e de UAV, em diferentes épocas, nomeadamente ao longo de um período de dois anos. Foi utilizada uma abordagem de classificação em duas etapas, baseada num índice de vegetação de diferença normalizada e num classificador de Floresta Aleatória. Os resultados mostram desempenhos de classificação de alta precisão ao condensar a cobertura do solo em menos classes e também em áreas menos densamente vegetativas. As classificações resultantes foram posteriormente processadas em termos de alterações transfronteiriças e alterações sazonais. Estas técnicas mostram um elevado potencial futuro para avaliar a vegetação das áreas de dunas costeiras e para apoiar a gestão costeira.The mapping of vegetation, by identifying the type and distribution of plant communities and species, is crucial for analysing vegetation coverage and spatial patterns. Understanding dune plant spatial and temporal variabilities in connection with morphodynamics gives further insight in dynamism and evolution of coastal environments. Such analysis can contribute to the development of coastal management plans that helps to implement coastal biodiversity and protection strategies. This dissertation presents an approach to assess the use of multispectral imagery and explore the variability of coastal dune vegetation with remotely sensed data collected by an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). Four different study zones were chosen at the eastern part of the Ancao Peninsula, distributed alongshore, and covering the backshore and the dune crest until the base of the dune lee. Field and UAV data were used, in different seasons namely over an extend of two years. A two-step classification approach, based on a normalized difference vegetation index and Random Forest classifier, was used. The Results show high accuracy classification performances when condensing the groundcover into fewer classes and also in less densely vegetated areas. Resulting classifications were further processed in terms of cross-shore changes and seasonal changes. These technics show a high future potential to assess the vegetation of coastal dune areas and to support coastal management

Hyperspectral Modeling of Material Appearance: General Framework, Challenges and Prospects

The main purpose of this tutorial is to address theoretical and practical issues involved in the development of predictive material appearancemodels for interdisciplinary applications within and outside the visible spectral domain. We examine the specific constraints and pitfalls found in each of the key stages of the model development framework, namely data collection, design and evaluation, and discuss alternatives to enhance the effectiveness of the entire process. Although predictive material appearance models developed by computer graphics researchers are usually aimed at realistic image synthesis applications, they also provide valuable support for a myriad of advanced investigations in related areas, such as computer vision, image processing and pattern recognition, which rely on the accurate analysis and interpretation of material appearance attributes in the hyperspectral domain. In fact, their scope of contributions goes beyond the realm of traditional computer science applications. For example, predictive light transport simulations, which are essential for the development of these models, are also regularly beingused by physical and life science researchers to understand andpredict material appearance changes prompted by mechanisms which cannot be fully studied using standard ``wet'' experimental procedures.For completeness, this tutorial also provides an overview of such synergistic research efforts and in silico investigations, which are illustrated by case studies involving the use of hyperspectral material appearance models

Analysis of multibeam sonar data for benthic habitat characterization of the Port of Tauranga, New Zealand.

Tauranga Harbour is a mesotidal lagoon located within the Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, and is subject to an ongoing maintenance dredging program to remove mud deposits coming from various sources in the catchment. At the southern end of the commercial port, the Tauranga Bridge Marina was built adjacent to the bridge causeway, with 500 floating concrete berths, enclosed by concrete floating breakwaters. It is proposed to convert these floating breakwaters into solid ones to stop waves entering the marina. This is expected to influence tidal circulation around the Tauranga bridge causeway, and potentially affect sedimentation and marine habitats. The region is an important source of "kai moana" (seafood) for local iwi, and is a source of juvenile shellfish for the large beds located on the flood tidal delta and surrounding channels. This study investigates the impact of the successive harbour constructions on the local sedimentology. The overall goal of the mapping part of this project is to identify and locate the different seabed facies and features within the study site, which may be affected by the sediment transport potentially resulting from the past and future harbour developments. To investigate the impacts of the harbour modifications, a habitat-mapping survey using acoustic mapping techniques was undertaken in July and August 2011. The hydrographic survey was simultaneously performed using a multibeam echosounder (Kongsberg-Simrad EM3000) and a Starfish 452F sidescan sonar. The backscatter/imagery data from both systems was then used for habitat mapping, using a combination of Angular Response Analysis and image-based segmentation. An underwater camera survey and seabed sampling were also performed to ground-truth the morphologies identified from the acoustic backscatter analysis. The most recent habitat map was then compared to the previous studies to identify changes in response to the different modifications of the estuary

Desarrollo de una herramienta integrada de gestión costera para las costas rocosas en el sitio de estudio del Algarve.

Coastal erosion has contributed throughout geological time to shape world coastal landscapes leading to the coastline that we know today. This natural phenomenon, allied with soil erosion in water catchments, is the source of sediment for costal systems such as beaches and marshes. These systems have several purposes and functions serving as wave energy absorbents, habitats and nesting grounds for fauna and flora, maintaining also a barrier and protection between the fresh and saltwater. Coastal systems have been proven to be very desirable places for humans that led to increasing migration of the human population towards them due to the resources that could be obtained from these areas, from fishing to industry. In Europe, the settlement of a large population on these areas, heavy exploration and the touristic high demand for coastal areas increased interference and turned erosion into a serious problem, with ever growing negative consequences, especially along the French, Spanish, Portuguese coasts and the southern coast of the United Kingdom. Although most of the population realizes that the coastal erosion is a problem that needs to be addressed, their focus is mainly on short-term based observations of a rapid erosion. Therefore, other options must be considered and made known to the public, governmental and scientific communities. In order to study and create solutions for the coastal erosion and management plans adjusted to the processes of the rocky coastlines, the case study site was the southernmost rocky coast of the Algarve region. The Algarve rocky coast displays a very crenulated physiography mainly where the intensively karstified Lagos-Portimão Formation is exposed (between Porto de Mós and Olhos de Água). Beaches occur at the cliffs’ foot separated by headlands often connected to shore platforms forming littoral cells. Currently, the survival of these beaches depends almost exclusively on the longshore drift due to the lack of sediment sources from inland transported by rivers. The erosion of cliffs has minimal contribution in this area because rocks are mainly carbonates therefore the artificial nourishing of beaches has been an increasingly frequent practice. This thesis intends to contribute to the knowledge and identification of the main factors which are most relevant to the sustainable management of the coast, with emphasis on rocky coasts. It is structured in eight chapters. Chapter 1 encompasses an introduction to the general concepts and terminology needed to understand the several chapters from geomorphology terminology to mathematical equations. Chapter 2 a general overview of the characteristics of the study area and in chapter 3, a background analysis on coastal planning, legislation and legal instruments is carried out to assess how Portugal is dealing with EU demands. In chapter 4 the conditioning factors of geomorphological record are analysed and in chapter 5 management tools applicable to the rocky shores worldwide are proposed. The latter two chapters give insights of parameters that should be considered in coastal management and tools to achieve it. In chapter 6 socio-economic interactions with coastal areas are analysed in order to relate the state of tourism with the issues that need to be overcame in coastal areas. In chapter 7 the findings of this study are discussed, and the scientific progress and management recommendations are presented. In chapter 8 the overall conclusions are presented and the scientific outputs of this study. In short, this thesis provides a review of the state of EU coastal policies and shows good examples of the benefits of using new technologies and methodologies in coastal regions, creating new cartography and indexes to identify important parameters for the rocky coast of the Algarve. It contributes to the understanding of the diverse morphological coast of Algarve and the several issues that may be found when trying to achieve an integrated coastal management approach. The main objectives were achieved. This study establishes a scientific knowledge basis for an integrated management of rocky shores by highlighting the most important factors that influence erosion, creating models and frameworks adapted to their specific features and to the fast-increasing human pressures. The acquired data and scientific outcomes contribute to a diverse range of topics providing guidelines and tools for future researchers and coastal managers to achieve a more sustainable coastal management plan

Bridging the scales: model-driven integrative interpretation of archaeological and geophysical data.

Geophysical prospecting in wetland environments is continuously under debate because of the critical unstable environment, but at the same time the richness in cultural heritage. This thesis is part of the interdisciplinary project SFB 1266 of the CRC ‘Scales of transformation’ at Kiel University, which focuses on reconstructing the prehistoric landscape transformation during human occupation. It aims to examine the potential for conventional geophysical survey methods (resistivity, ground penetrating radar and seismics) as site prospection and landscape investigation tools in peatland environments. Two case studies are presented in which multi-geophysical investigations have been performed and validated by archaeological excavations and stratigraphic information. Kettle holes are common ice decay features in formerly glacial landscapes like those in Southern Scandinavia and Northern Germany. In 2017 the Horsens Museum (Denmark) carried out a rescue excavation at Tyrsted which revealed Late Palaeolithic flint of the Bromme type (12.000-11.000 BCE) and worked reindeer antlers. Nowadays, the organic artefact inventory from the Bromme culture is largely unknown due to the scarcity of organic remains and the general lack of proper stratigraphic observations. The available dates concentrate in the (late) Allerød and early Younger Dryas chronozones, but unfortunately most of these dating are tentative only. Therefore, this connection in a Late Glacial horizon at Tyrsted is unique and it has the potential to provide new information in the current archaeological debate. The aim is to investigate a small kettle hole (site 8) using ground penetrating radar (GPR), electromagnetic induction (EMI) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to estimate the extension of the feature. Shear wave reflection and refraction seismics (SH Seismics) were able to detect the whole shape and the bottom sediment of the former lake. Furthermore a seismic event is visible which can be associated to the transition between the Allerød and Younger Dryas sediment making the detection of the Bromme horizon possible. After the non invasive investigation, a location for an open excavation has been chosen in a way to groundtruth the geophysical results allowing the direct comparison with the stratigraphy. These results allow the archaeologists to identify key excavation areas focused on the investigation of the Allerød and Younger Dryas layers in a way to improve the dating information about the Bromme horizon collected so far. At the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers site of Duvensee (10000-6500 BCE) a multi methodological investigation has been carried out too, aiming to reconstruct the ancient landscape during human occupation. GPR, ERT and SH-Seismic have been performed together with corings, DP-EC logs and soil analyses as well for ground-truthing. It turned out that each method is able to distinguish between sediments that differ in grain size, in particular between peat, lake sediment (gyttjas and clay) and basal glacial sand deposits. GPR delivered the location of five former small sand hills that formed islands in the prehistoric lake where clusters of Mesolithic camps have been found. This study delivers depth maps of the three most important sedimentary facies interfaces and a 3D model of the spatio-temporal development of the Duvensee bog which agrees with the spatio-temporal pattern of the previous archaeological finds. GPR is even able to separate between high and low decomposed peat layers which is also clear considering resistivity variations in the ERT computation. From the association between geophysical properties and soil analyses (e.g. water content and organic matter) different gyttjas were distinguished and sismic velocity was correlated to bulk density. Values concerning electrical resistivity, dielectric permittivity, and shear wave velocity have been determined for each sediment and are therefore available to complete and improve the investigation of wetland environments. Both geophysical measurements and sediment analyses presented in this study can finally be useful to map lake sediments in wetland environments offering a potential to shape the common debate regarding wetland heritage management. This thesis concludes that geophysical prospection contributes to wetland archaeology as a tool for site detection and landscape interpretation. Future research should aim to further our understanding of the relationship between geophysical response and peatland soil properties, alongside a more extensive program of surveys and ground-truthing work to improve survey methodologies and archaeological interpretations

Water quality monitoring of kettle holes by means of hyperspectral remote sensing in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern state, Germany

This research aims to present the ability of hyperspectral remote sensing (two-years field spectral data, HyMap and ROSIS sensors imagery) for kettle holes’ water quality parameters (chlorophyll, depth, total suspended sediment) mapping in agricultural young moraine landscapes in North-Eastern Germany. The objectives were to: (1) determine trophic state of several kettle holes (spatial heterogeneity and temporal dynamics); (2) evaluate and assess the applicability of hyperspectral remote sensing techniques to the water quality of kettle holes that are most suitable for various kettle holes.In dieser Arbeit wird die Eignung der hyperspektralen Fernerkundung (HRS) für das Monitoring von Wasserqualitätsparametern von Söllen (Chlorophyll, Tiefe, gelöste Stoffe) in einer intensiv landwirtschaftlich genutzten Jungmoränenlandschaft Nordostdeutschlands anhand von zweijährigen feldspektrischen Daten sowie Bilddaten von HyMap- und ROSIS-Sensoren untersucht. Diese Arbeit hatte zum Ziel (1) den Trophiestatus mehrerer Sölle zu erfassen (räumliche Variabilität und zeitliche Dynamik); (2) die HRS-Technik im Hinblick auf ihre Anwendbarkeit hin im Wasserqualitäts-Monitoring von Söllen zu bewerten

Mapping and Assessing Impacts of Land Use and Land Cover Change by Means of Advanced Remote Sensing Approach:: Mapping and Assessing Impacts of Land Use and Land Cover Change by Means of Advanced Remote Sensing Approach:: A case Study of Gash Agricultural Scheme, Eastern Sudan

Risks and uncertainties are unavoidable in agriculture in Sudan, due to its dependence on climatic factors and to the imperfect nature of the agricultural decisions and policies attributed to land cover and land use changes that occur. The current study was conducted in the Gash Agricultural Scheme (GAS) - Kassala State, as a semi-arid land in eastern Sudan. The scheme has been established to contribute to the rural development, to help stability of the nomadic population in eastern Sudan, particularly the local population around the Gash river areas, and to facilitate utilizing the river flood in growing cotton and other cash crops. In the last decade, the scheme production has declined, because of drought periods, which hit the region, sand invasion and the spread of invasive mesquite trees, in addition to administrative negligence. These have resulted also in poor agricultural productivity and the displacement of farmers away from the scheme area. Recently, the scheme is heavily disturbed by human intervention in many aspects. Consequently, resources of cultivated land have shrunk and declined during the period of the study, which in turn have led to dissatisfaction and increasing failure of satisfying increasing farmer’s income and demand for local consumption. Remote sensing applications and geospatial techniques have played a key role in studying different types of hazards whether they are natural or manmade. Multi-temporal satellite data combined with ancillary data were used to monitor, analyze and to assess land use and land cover (LULC) changes and the impact of land degradation on the scheme production, which provides the managers and decision makers with current and improved data for the purposes of proper administration of natural resources in the GAS. Information about patterns of LULC changes through time in the GAS is not only important for the management and planning, but also for a better understanding of human dimensions of environmental changes at regional scale. This study attempts to map and assess the impacts of LULC change and land degradation in GAS during a period of 38 years from 1972-2010. Dry season multi-temporal satellite imagery collected by different sensor systems was selected such as three cloud-free Landsat (MSS 1972, TM 1987 and ETM+ 1999) and ASTER (2010) satellite imagery. This imagery was geo-referenced and radiometrically and atmospherically calibrated using dark object subtraction (DOS). Two approaches of classification (object-oriented and pixel-based) were applied for classification and comparison of LULC. In addition, the study compares between the two approaches to determine which one is more compatible for classification of LULC of the GAS. The pixel-based approach performed slightly better than the object-oriented approach in the classification of LULC in the study area. Application of multi-temporal remote sensing data proved to be successful for the identification and mapping of LULC into five main classes as follows: woodland dominated by dense mesquite trees, grass and shrubs dominated by less dense mesquite trees, bare and cultivated land, stabilized fine sand and mobile sand. After image enhancement successful classification of imagery was achieved using pixel and object based approaches as well as subsequent change detection (image differencing and change matrix), supported by classification accuracy assessments and post-classification. Comparison of LULC changes shows that the land cover of GAS has changed dramatically during the investigated period. It has been discovered that more significant of LULC change processes occurred during the second studied period (1987 to 1999) than during the first period (1972-1987). In the second period nearly half of bare and cultivated lands was changed from 41372.74 ha (20.22 %) in 1987 to 28020.80 ha (13.60 %) in 1999, which was mainly due to the drought that hit the region during the mentioned period. However, the results revealed a drastic loss of bare and cultivated land, equivalent to more than 40% during the entire period (1972-2010). Throughout the whole period of study, drought and invasion of both mesquite trees and sand were responsible for the loss of more than 40% of the total productive lands. Change vector analysis (CVA) as a useful approach was applied for estimating change detection in both magnitude and direction of change. The promising approach of multivariate alteration detection (MAD) and subsequent maximum autocorrelation factor (MAD/MAF) transformation was used to support change detection via assessment of maximum correlation between the transformed variates and the specific original image bands related to specific land cover classes. However, both CVA and MAD/MAD strongly prove the fact that bare and cultivated land have dramatically changed and decreased continuously during the studied period. Both CVA and MAD/MAD demonstrate adequate potentials for monitoring, detecting, identifying and mapping the changes. Moreover, this research demonstrated that CVA and MAD/MAF are superior in providing qualitative details about the nature of all kinds of change. Vegetation indices (VI) such as normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI), modified adjusted vegetation index (MSAVI) and grain soil index (GSI) were applied to measure the quantitative characterization of temporal and spatial vegetation cover patterns and change. All indices remain very sensitive to structure variation of LULC. The results reveal that the NDVI is more effective for detecting the amount and status of the vegetation cover in the study area than SAVI, MSAVI and GSI. Therefore, it can be stated that NDVI can be used as a response variable to identify drought disturbance and land degradation in semi-arid land such as the GAS area. Results of detecting vegetation cover observed by using SAVI were found to be more reasonable than using MSAVI, although MSAVI reduces the background of bare soil better than SAVI. GSI proves high efficiency in determining the different types of surface soils, and producing a change map of top soil grain size, which is useful in assessment of land degradation in the study area. The linkage between socio-economic data and remotely sensed data was applied to determine the relationships between the different factors derived and to analyze the reasons for change in LULC and land degradation and its effects in the study area. The results indicate a strong relationship between LULC derived from remotely sensed data and the influencing socioeconomic variables. The results obtained from analyzing socioeconomic data confirm the findings of remote sensing data analysis, which assure that the decline and degradation of agricultural land is a result of further spread of mesquite trees and of increased invasion of sand during the study period. High livestock density and overgrazing, drought, invasion of sand, spread of invasive mesquite trees, overexploitation of land, improper management, and population growth were considered as the main direct factors responsible for degradation in the study area