Proceedings

Proceedings of the Workshop on Annotation and Exploitation of Parallel Corpora AEPC 2010. Editors: Lars Ahrenberg, Jörg Tiedemann and Martin Volk. NEALT Proceedings Series, Vol. 10 (2010), 98 pages. © 2010 The editors and contributors. Published by Northern European Association for Language Technology (NEALT) http://omilia.uio.no/nealt . Electronically published at Tartu University Library (Estonia) http://hdl.handle.net/10062/15893

Discovery of Ambiguous and Unambiguous Discourse Connectives via Annotation Projection

Proceedings of the Workshop on Annotation and Exploitation of Parallel Corpora AEPC 2010. Editors: Lars Ahrenberg, Jörg Tiedemann and Martin Volk. NEALT Proceedings Series, Vol. 10 (2010), 83-92. © 2010 The editors and contributors. Published by Northern European Association for Language Technology (NEALT) http://omilia.uio.no/nealt . Electronically published at Tartu University Library (Estonia) http://hdl.handle.net/10062/15893

Addressing the data bottleneck in implicit discourse relation classification

When humans comprehend language, their interpretation consists of more than just the sum of the content of the sentences. Additional logic and semantic links (known as coherence relations or discourse relations) are inferred between sentences/clauses in the text. The identification of discourse relations is beneficial for various NLP applications such as question-answering, summarization, machine translation, information extraction, etc. Discourse relations are categorized into implicit and explicit discourse relations depending on whether there is an explicit discourse marker between the arguments. In this thesis, we mainly focus on the implicit discourse relation classification, given that with the explicit markers acting as informative cues, the explicit relations are relatively easier to identify for machines. The recent neural network-based approaches in particular suffer from insufficient training (and test) data. As shown in Chapter 3 of this thesis, we start out by showing to what extent the limited data size is a problem in implicit discourse relation classification and propose data augmentation methods with the help of cross-lingual data. And then we propose several approaches for better exploiting and encoding various types of existing data in the discourse relation classification task. Most of the existing machine learning methods train on sections 2-21 of the PDTB and test on section 23, which only includes a total of less than 800 implicit discourse relation instances. With the help of cross validation, we argue that the standard test section of the PDTB is too small to draw conclusions upon. With more test samples in the cross validation, we would come to very different conclusions about whether a feature is generally useful. Second, we propose a simple approach to automatically extract samples of implicit discourse relations from multilingual parallel corpus via back-translation. After back-translating from target languages, it is easy for the discourse parser to identify those examples that are originally implicit but explicit in the back-translations. Having those additional data in the training set, the experiments show significant improvements on different settings. Finally, having better encoding ability is also of crucial importance in terms of improving classification performance. We propose different methods including a sequence-to-sequence neural network and a memory component to help have a better representation of the arguments. We also show that having the correct next sentence is beneficial for the task within and across domains, with the help of the BERT (Devlin et al., 2019) model. When it comes to a new domain, it is beneficial to integrate external domain-specific knowledge. In Chapter 8, we show that with the entity-enhancement, the performance on BioDRB is improved significantly, comparing with other BERT-based methods. In sum, the studies reported in this dissertation contribute to addressing the data bottleneck problem in implicit discourse relation classification and propose corresponding approaches that achieve 54.82% and 69.57% on PDTB and BioDRB respectively.Wenn Menschen Sprache verstehen, besteht ihre Interpretation aus mehr als nur der Summe des Inhalts der Sätze. Zwischen Sätzen im Text werden zusätzliche logische und semantische Verknüpfungen (sogenannte Kohärenzrelationen oder Diskursrelationen) hergeleitet. Die Identifizierung von Diskursrelationen ist für verschiedene NLP-Anwendungen wie Frage- Antwort, Zusammenfassung, maschinelle Übersetzung, Informationsextraktion usw. von Vorteil. Diskursrelationen werden in implizite und explizite Diskursrelationen unterteilt, je nachdem, ob es eine explizite Diskursrelationen zwischen den Argumenten gibt. In dieser Arbeit konzentrieren wir uns hauptsächlich auf die Klassifizierung der impliziten Diskursrelationen, da die expliziten Marker als hilfreiche Hinweise dienen und die expliziten Beziehungen für Maschinen relativ leicht zu identifizieren sind. Es wurden verschiedene Ansätze vorgeschlagen, die bei der impliziten Diskursrelationsklassifikation beeindruckende Ergebnisse erzielt haben. Die meisten von ihnen leiden jedoch darunter, dass die Daten für auf neuronalen Netzen basierende Methoden unzureichend sind. In dieser Arbeit gehen wir zunächst auf das Problem begrenzter Daten bei dieser Aufgabe ein und schlagen dann Methoden zur Datenanreicherung mit Hilfe von sprachübergreifenden Daten vor. Zuletzt schlagen wir mehrere Methoden vor, um die Argumente aus verschiedenen Aspekten besser kodieren zu können. Die meisten der existierenden Methoden des maschinellen Lernens werden auf den Abschnitten 2-21 der PDTB trainiert und auf dem Abschnitt 23 getestet, der insgesamt nur weniger als 800 implizite Diskursrelationsinstanzen enthält. Mit Hilfe der Kreuzvalidierung argumentieren wir, dass der Standardtestausschnitt der PDTB zu klein ist um daraus Schlussfolgerungen zu ziehen. Mit mehr Teststichproben in der Kreuzvalidierung würden wir zu anderen Schlussfolgerungen darüber kommen, ob ein Merkmal für diese Aufgabe generell vorteilhaft ist oder nicht, insbesondere wenn wir einen relativ großen Labelsatz verwenden. Wenn wir nur unseren kleinen Standardtestsatz herausstellen, laufen wir Gefahr, falsche Schlüsse darüber zu ziehen, welche Merkmale hilfreich sind. Zweitens schlagen wir einen einfachen Ansatz zur automatischen Extraktion von Samples impliziter Diskursrelationen aus mehrsprachigen Parallelkorpora durch Rückübersetzung vor. Er ist durch den Explikationsprozess motiviert, wenn Menschen einen Text übersetzen. Nach der Rückübersetzung aus den Zielsprachen ist es für den Diskursparser leicht, diejenigen Beispiele zu identifizieren, die ursprünglich implizit, in den Rückübersetzungen aber explizit enthalten sind. Da diese zusätzlichen Daten im Trainingsset enthalten sind, zeigen die Experimente signifikante Verbesserungen in verschiedenen Situationen. Wir verwenden zunächst nur französisch-englische Paare und haben keine Kontrolle über die Qualität und konzentrieren uns meist auf die satzinternen Relationen. Um diese Fragen in Angriff zu nehmen, erweitern wir die Idee später mit mehr Vorverarbeitungsschritten und mehr Sprachpaaren. Mit den Mehrheitsentscheidungen aus verschiedenen Sprachpaaren sind die gemappten impliziten Labels zuverlässiger. Schließlich ist auch eine bessere Kodierfähigkeit von entscheidender Bedeutung für die Verbesserung der Klassifizierungsleistung. Wir schlagen ein neues Modell vor, das aus einem Klassifikator und einem Sequenz-zu-Sequenz-Modell besteht. Neben der korrekten Vorhersage des Labels werden sie auch darauf trainiert, eine Repräsentation der Diskursrelationsargumente zu erzeugen, indem sie versuchen, die Argumente einschließlich eines geeigneten impliziten Konnektivs vorherzusagen. Die neuartige sekundäre Aufgabe zwingt die interne Repräsentation dazu, die Semantik der Relationsargumente vollständiger zu kodieren und eine feinkörnigere Klassifikation vorzunehmen. Um das allgemeine Wissen in Kontexten weiter zu erfassen, setzen wir auch ein Gedächtnisnetzwerk ein, um eine explizite Kontextrepräsentation von Trainingsbeispielen für Kontexte zu erhalten. Für jede Testinstanz erzeugen wir durch gewichtetes Lesen des Gedächtnisses einen Wissensvektor. Wir evaluieren das vorgeschlagene Modell unter verschiedenen Bedingungen und die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Modell mit dem Speichernetzwerk die Vorhersage von Diskursrelationen erleichtern kann, indem es Beispiele auswählt, die eine ähnliche semantische Repräsentation und Diskursrelationen aufweisen. Auch wenn ein besseres Verständnis, eine Kodierung und semantische Interpretation für die Aufgabe der impliziten Diskursrelationsklassifikation unerlässlich und nützlich sind, so leistet sie doch nur einen Teil der Arbeit. Ein guter impliziter Diskursrelationsklassifikator sollte sich auch der bevorstehenden Ereignisse, Ursachen, Folgen usw. bewusst sein, um die Diskurserwartung in die Satzdarstellungen zu kodieren. Mit Hilfe des kürzlich vorgeschlagenen BERT-Modells versuchen wir herauszufinden, ob es für die Aufgabe vorteilhaft ist, den richtigen nächsten Satz zu haben oder nicht. Die experimentellen Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Entfernen der Aufgabe zur Vorhersage des nächsten Satzes die Leistung sowohl innerhalb der Domäne als auch domänenübergreifend stark beeinträchtigt. Die begrenzte Fähigkeit von BioBERT, domänenspezifisches Wissen, d.h. Entitätsinformationen, Entitätsbeziehungen etc. zu erlernen, motiviert uns, externes Wissen in die vortrainierten Sprachmodelle zu integrieren. Wir schlagen eine unüberwachte Methode vor, bei der Information-Retrieval-System und Wissensgraphen-Techniken verwendet werden, mit der Annahme, dass, wenn zwei Instanzen ähnliche Entitäten in beiden relationalen Argumenten teilen, die Wahrscheinlichkeit groß ist, dass sie die gleiche oder eine ähnliche Diskursrelation haben. Der Ansatz erzielt vergleichbare Ergebnisse auf BioDRB, verglichen mit Baselinemodellen. Anschließend verwenden wir die extrahierten relevanten Entitäten zur Verbesserung des vortrainierten Modells K-BERT, um die Bedeutung der Argumente besser zu kodieren und das ursprüngliche BERT und BioBERT mit einer Genauigkeit von 6,5% bzw. 2% zu übertreffen. Zusammenfassend trägt diese Dissertation dazu bei, das Problem des Datenengpasses bei der impliziten Diskursrelationsklassifikation anzugehen, und schlägt entsprechende Ansätze in verschiedenen Aspekten vor, u.a. die Darstellung des begrenzten Datenproblems und der Risiken bei der Schlussfolgerung daraus; die Erfassung automatisch annotierter Daten durch den Explikationsprozess während der manuellen Übersetzung zwischen Englisch und anderen Sprachen; eine bessere Repräsentation von Diskursrelationsargumenten; Entity-Enhancement mit einer unüberwachten Methode und einem vortrainierten Sprachmodell

A general framework for the annotation of causality based on FrameNet

International audienceWe present here a general set of semantic frames to annotate causal expressions, with a rich lexicon in French and an annotated corpus of about 4000 instances of causal lexical items with their corresponding semantic frames. The aim of our project is to have both the largest possible coverage of causal phenomena in French, across all parts of speech, and have it linked to a general semantic framework such as FN, to benefit in particular from the relations between other semantic frames, e.g., temporal ones or intentional ones, and the underlying upper lexical ontology that enables some forms of reasoning. This is part of the larger ASFALDA French FrameNet project, which focuses on a few different notional domains which are interesting in their own right (Djemaa et al., 2016), including cognitive positions and communication frames. In the process of building the French lexicon and preparing the annotation of the corpus, we had to remodel some of the frames proposed in FN based on English data, with hopefully more precise frame definitions to facilitate human annotation. This includes semantic clarifications of frames and frame elements, redundancy elimination, and added coverage. The result is arguably a significant improvement of the treatment of causality in FN itself

Coherence in Machine Translation

Coherence ensures individual sentences work together to form a meaningful document. When properly translated, a coherent document in one language should result in a coherent document in another language. In Machine Translation, however, due to reasons of modeling and computational complexity, sentences are pieced together from words or phrases based on short context windows and with no access to extra-sentential context. In this thesis I propose ways to automatically assess the coherence of machine translation output. The work is structured around three dimensions: entity-based coherence, coherence as evidenced via syntactic patterns, and coherence as evidenced via discourse relations. For the first time, I evaluate existing monolingual coherence models on this new task, identifying issues and challenges that are specific to the machine translation setting. In order to address these issues, I adapted a state-of-the-art syntax model, which also resulted in improved performance for the monolingual task. The results clearly indicate how much more difficult the new task is than the task of detecting shuffled texts. I proposed a new coherence model, exploring the crosslingual transfer of discourse relations in machine translation. This model is novel in that it measures the correctness of the discourse relation by comparison to the source text rather than to a reference translation. I identified patterns of incoherence common across different language pairs, and created a corpus of machine translated output annotated with coherence errors for evaluation purposes. I then examined lexical coherence in a multilingual context, as a preliminary study for crosslingual transfer. Finally, I determine how the new and adapted models correlate with human judgements of translation quality and suggest that improvements in general evaluation within machine translation would benefit from having a coherence component that evaluated the translation output with respect to the source text

Inducing Discourse Resources Using Annotation Projection

An important aspect of natural language understanding and generation involves the recognition and processing of discourse relations. Building applications such as text summarization, question answering and natural language generation needs human language technology beyond the level of the sentence. To address this need, large scale discourse annotated corpora such as the Penn Discourse Treebank (PDTB; Prasad et al., 2008a) have been developed. Manually constructing discourse resources (e.g. discourse annotated corpora) is expensive, both in terms of time and expertise. As a consequence, such resources are only available for a few languages. In this thesis, we propose an approach that automatically creates two types of discourse resources from parallel texts: 1) PDTB-style discourse annotated corpora and 2) lexicons of discourse connectives. Our approach is based on annotation projection where linguistic annotations are projected from a source language to a target language in parallel texts. Our work has made several theoretical contributions as well as practical contributions to the field of discourse analysis. From a theoretical perspective, we have proposed a method to refine the naive method of discourse annotation projection by filtering annotations that are not supported by parallel texts. Our approach is based on the intersection between statistical word-alignment models and can automatically identify 65% of unsupported projected annotations. We have also proposed a novel approach for annotation projection that is independent of statistical word-alignment models. This approach is more robust to longer discourse connectives than approaches based on statistical word-alignment models. From a practical perspective, we have automatically created the Europarl ConcoDisco corpora from English-French parallel texts of the Europarl corpus (Koehn, 2009). In the Europarl ConcoDisco corpora, around 1 million occurrences of French discourse connectives are automatically aligned to their translation. From the French side of \parcorpus, we have extracted our first significant resource, the FrConcoDisco corpora. To our knowledge, the FrConcoDisco corpora are the first PDTB-style discourse annotated corpora for French where French discourse connectives are annotated with the discourse relations that they signaled. The FrConcoDisco corpora are significant in size as they contain more than 25 times more annotations than the PDTB. To evaluate the FrConcoDisco corpora, we showed how they can be used to train a classifier for the disambiguation of French discourse connectives with a high performance. The second significant resource that we automatically extracted from parallel texts is ConcoLeDisCo. ConcoLeDisCo is a lexicon of French discourse connectives mapped to PDTB discourse relations. While ConcoLeDisCo is useful by itself, as we showed in this thesis, it can be used to improve the coverage of manually constructed lexicons of discourse connectives such as LEXCONN (Roze et al., 2012)

Adverse Drug Event Detection, Causality Inference, Patient Communication and Translational Research

Adverse drug events (ADEs) are injuries resulting from a medical intervention related to a drug. ADEs are responsible for nearly 20% of all the adverse events that occur in hospitalized patients. ADEs have been shown to increase the cost of health care and the length of stays in hospital. Therefore, detecting and preventing ADEs for pharmacovigilance is an important task that can improve the quality of health care and reduce the cost in a hospital setting. In this dissertation, we focus on the development of ADEtector, a system that identifies ADEs and medication information from electronic medical records and the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System reports. The ADEtector system employs novel natural language processing approaches for ADE detection and provides a user interface to display ADE information. The ADEtector employs machine learning techniques to automatically processes the narrative text and identify the adverse event (AE) and medication entities that appear in that narrative text. The system will analyze the entities recognized to infer the causal relation that exists between AEs and medications by automating the elements of Naranjo score using knowledge and rule based approaches. The Naranjo Adverse Drug Reaction Probability Scale is a validated tool for finding the causality of a drug induced adverse event or ADE. The scale calculates the likelihood of an adverse event related to drugs based on a list of weighted questions. The ADEtector also presents the user with evidence for ADEs by extracting figures that contain ADE related information from biomedical literature. A brief summary is generated for each of the figures that are extracted to help users better comprehend the figure. This will further enhance the user experience in understanding the ADE information better. The ADEtector also helps patients better understand the narrative text by recognizing complex medical jargon and abbreviations that appear in the text and providing definitions and explanations for them from external knowledge resources. This system could help clinicians and researchers in discovering novel ADEs and drug relations and also hypothesize new research questions within the ADE domain

ACES: Translation Accuracy Challenge Sets at WMT 2023

We benchmark the performance of segmentlevel metrics submitted to WMT 2023 using the ACES Challenge Set (Amrhein et al., 2022). The challenge set consists of 36K examples representing challenges from 68 phenomena and covering 146 language pairs. The phenomena range from simple perturbations at the word/character level to more complex errors based on discourse and real-world knowledge. For each metric, we provide a detailed profile of performance over a range of error categories as well as an overall ACES-Score for quick comparison. We also measure the incremental performance of the metrics submitted to both WMT 2023 and 2022. We find that 1) there is no clear winner among the metrics submitted to WMT 2023, and 2) performance change between the 2023 and 2022 versions of the metrics is highly variable. Our recommendations are similar to those from WMT 2022. Metric developers should focus on: building ensembles of metrics from different design families, developing metrics that pay more attention to the source and rely less on surface-level overlap, and carefully determining the influence of multilingual embeddings on MT evaluation.Comment: Camera Ready WMT 2023. arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2210.1561

Investigating the Use of Transformer Based Embeddings for Multilingual Discourse Connective Identification

In this thesis, we report on our experiments toward multilingual discourse connective (or DC) identification and show how language-specific BERT models seem to be sufficient even with little task-specific training data and do not require any additional handcrafted features to achieve strong results. Although some languages are under-resourced and do not have large annotated discourse connective corpora. To address this, we developed a methodology to induce large synthetic discourse annotated corpora using a parallel word aligned corpus. We evaluated our models in 3 languages: English, Turkish, and Mandarin Chinese; and applied our induction methodology on English-Turkish and English-Chinese. All our models were evaluated in the context of the recent DISRPT 2021 Task 2 shared task. Results show that the F-measure achieved by our simple approach (93.12%, 94.42%, 87.47% for English, Turkish and Chinese) are near or at state-of-the-art for the 3 languages while being simple and not requiring any handcrafted features